確認偏誤
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確認偏誤（或稱確認偏差、證實偏差、肯證偏誤、驗證偏誤、驗證性偏見、我方偏見，英語：Confirmation bias）[1]是個人選擇性地回憶、蒐集有利細節，忽略不利或矛盾的資訊，來支持自己已有的想法或假設的趨勢[2][3][4]，屬於認知偏誤的其中一類以及歸納推理中的一個系統性錯誤。當人們選擇性收集或回憶資訊時，又或帶有偏見地解讀資訊時，他們便展現了確認偏誤。
這種偏見尤其顯見於帶有強烈情緒的問題和傳統觀念上。例如，人們面對情傷，大多難以割捨，會在反覆的情緒中來回擺盪掙扎，過程中不斷回顧並對自己給予合理的解釋與交代，直到身心得到平衡安頓為止。
不可挑戰的信仰
[編輯]回顧與重新認知的過程會建構一個新的認知事實，面對挑戰時信仰反而再強化，它受到個人價值觀、家人或傳統社會的壓力、或宗教信仰等批判或趨避的影響，而傾向採取對自己較為有利的說法或選擇性的認知，以合理化整個事件，進而化解外部壓力並獲得身心上的平衡。例如說主張某宗教團體是邪教的人將該宗教經典中一些荒誕迷信的內容，及該團體一些信徒像是不顧配偶反對攜帶自家小孩參加宗教活動等偏激的行為，給當成該團體是邪教的證據，卻忽略宗教經典的內容或部分信徒偏激的個人行為，與一個團體是否是邪教未必相關；或者相信算命的人聽到命理師講的話之後，就採信命理師的話，並把自己過去發生的事情當中，和命理師講述的相似的部分，給當成算命準確的證據；又例如當談及槍枝管制問題時，人們常偏好支持自己原立場，觀點，也傾向將模稜兩可的事實做有利於自己的解釋。
偏見的搜索、理解和回憶，常被用來說明態度極化（即使爭論雙方都依附於相同的根據，爭執仍變得極端）、信念固着（在反證出現後依然堅信原有看法）、非理性首因效應（即強烈的「先入為主」效應）及錯覺相關（對二件偶然事件做無根據的連結的傾向）等現象。
參見
[編輯]
註腳
[編輯]參考資料
[編輯]- ^ Nickerson 1998，第175–220頁
- ^ Plous 1993，第233頁
- ^ 鄭麗玉. 心理學. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. 2006: 283– [2013-01-17]. ISBN 978-957-11-4381-1.
- ^ Plous, Scott, The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making: 233, 1993
參考文獻
[編輯]- Baron, Jonathan, Thinking and deciding 3rd, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-65030-5, OCLC 316403966
- Cordelia Fine, A Mind of its Own: how your brain distorts and deceives, Cambridge, UK: Icon books, 2006, ISBN 1-84046-678-2, OCLC 60668289
- Friedrich, James, Primary error detection and minimization (PEDMIN) strategies in social cognition: a reinterpretation of confirmation bias phenomena, Psychological Review (American Psychological Association), 1993, 100 (2): 298–319, ISSN 0033-295X, PMID 8483985, doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.2.298
- Ben Goldacre, Bad Science, London: Fourth Estate, 2008, ISBN 978-0-00-724019-7, OCLC 259713114
- Hergovich, Andreas; Schott, Reinhard; Burger, Christoph, Biased Evaluation of Abstracts Depending on Topic and Conclusion: Further Evidence of a Confirmation Bias Within Scientific Psychology, Current Psychology, 2010, 29 (3): 188–209, doi:10.1007/s12144-010-9087-5
- Horrobin, David F., The philosophical basis of peer review and the suppression of innovation, Journal of the American Medical Association, 1990, 263 (10): 1438–41, PMID 2304222, doi:10.1001/jama.263.10.1438
- Kida, Thomas E., Don't believe everything you think: the 6 basic mistakes we make in thinking, Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, 2006, ISBN 978-1-59102-408-8, OCLC 63297791
- Koehler, Jonathan J., The influence of prior beliefs on scientific judgments of evidence quality, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1993, 56: 28–55, doi:10.1006/obhd.1993.1044
- Ziva Kunda, Social Cognition: Making Sense of People, MIT Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-262-61143-5, OCLC 40618974
- Lewicka, Maria, Confirmation Bias: Cognitive Error or Adaptive Strategy of Action Control?, Kofta, Mirosław; Weary, Gifford; Sedek, Grzegorz (編), Personal control in action: cognitive and motivational mechanisms, Springer: 233–55, 1998, ISBN 978-0-306-45720-3, OCLC 39002877
- MacCoun, Robert J., Biases in the interpretation and use of research results (PDF), Annual Review of Psychology, 1998, 49: 259–87 [2011-02-03], PMID 15012470, doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.259, （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2011-06-22）
- Mahoney, Michael J., Publication prejudices: an experimental study of confirmatory bias in the peer review system, Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1977, 1 (2): 161–75, doi:10.1007/BF01173636
- Raymond S. Nickerson, Confirmation Bias; A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises, Review of General Psychology (Educational Publishing Foundation), 1998, 2 (2): 175–220, ISSN 1089-2680, doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175
- Oswald, Margit E.; Grosjean, Stefan, Confirmation Bias, Pohl, Rüdiger F. (編), Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory, Hove, UK: Psychology Press: 79–96, 2004, ISBN 978-1-84169-351-4, OCLC 55124398
- Scott Plous, The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making, McGraw-Hill, 1993, ISBN 978-0-07-050477-6, OCLC 26931106
- Poletiek, Fenna, Hypothesis-testing behaviour, Hove, UK: Psychology Press, 2001, ISBN 978-1-84169-159-6, OCLC 44683470
- Risen, Jane; Gilovich, Thomas, Informal Logical Fallacies, Sternberg, Robert J.; Roediger III, Henry L.; Halpern, Diane F. (編), Critical Thinking in Psychology, Cambridge University Press: 110–30, 2007, ISBN 978-0-521-60834-3, OCLC 69423179
- Vyse, Stuart A., Believing in magic: The psychology of superstition, New York: Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-19-513634-9, OCLC 35025826
外部連結
[編輯]
| 認知與決策偏誤 |
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| 統計與概率偏誤 | |
| 其他偏誤 | |
| 應對方法 | |
