帕米拉

帕爾米拉古城遺址
世界遺產
	2010年的巴爾米拉
官方名稱	Site of Palmyra（英文）; Site de Palmyre（法文）
位置	敘利亞（阿拉伯國家）
標準	文化：(i)(ii)(iv)
參考編碼	23
登錄年份	1980年（第4屆會議）
列為瀕危	2013年至今
座標	34°33′9″N 38°15′54″E / 34.55250°N 38.26500°E

巴爾米拉（希臘語：Παλμυρα；帕米拉亞蘭語：𐡶𐡣𐡬𐡥𐡴，也譯帕爾米拉），是在敘利亞中部的一個重要的古代城市，位於大馬士革東北215公里，幼發拉底河西南120公里處。是商隊穿越敘利亞沙漠的重要中轉站，也是重要的商業中心。巴爾米拉是該城的希臘語名字，來源於它最初的亞拉姆語名字「塔德莫」（Tadmor），意為「棕櫚樹」。

歷史

古代

塔德莫最早是在馬利（Mari）公元前2000年的文獻中被提到，馬力是附近另一連接美索不達米亞和北敘利亞的貿易城市。塔德莫也在舊約中被提到（歷代志下8.4），是一座所羅門設防的沙漠城市。塔馬城（Tamar）在列王紀上被提到，所羅門也在此設防，塔馬被認為是塔德莫在傳統希伯來讀音中的讀法。塔德莫在約瑟夫所著的《猶太古史》中被認為是所羅門所建，並指出希臘語名字巴爾米拉。

在現代希伯來語中，巴爾米拉的名字還是塔德莫。巴爾米拉的語源並不清楚，大多數學者都認為於此地的棕櫚樹有關，也有學者認為是塔德莫的訛譯。

希臘化-羅馬時期

當塞琉古一世於前312年控制敘利亞時，這座城市仍保持獨立。城市在公元前1世紀作為過往商隊的中轉站而繁榮起來。前41年，馬克·安東尼帶領羅馬軍隊試圖占領巴爾米拉，但未能成功，因為巴爾米拉人都逃到幼發拉底河的對岸去了。這說明巴爾米拉當時還是個游牧的定居點，貴重物品可以在很短的時間內被轉移。巴爾米拉在提比略統治時期被併入羅馬帝國的敘利亞行省。巴爾米拉作為連接波斯、印度、中國和羅馬帝國的貿易城市而迅速發展。在129年，哈德良巡幸了該城市，他稱讚了巴爾米拉，宣布該城自由，並重命名為巴爾米拉·哈德良那（Palmyra Hadriana）。

從212年起，巴爾米拉的貿易衰落了，因為薩珊王朝控制了底格里斯河和幼發拉底河的河口。巴爾米拉的王子奧登納圖斯被羅馬皇帝瓦萊里安任命為敘利亞行省的長官。在瓦萊里安被薩珊人俘虜後，奧登納圖斯為報復進攻薩珊波斯，兩度打敗沙普爾一世的軍隊。當奧登納圖斯被暗殺後，他的妻子芝諾比亞掌權，和她的兒子瓦巴拉圖斯（Vabalathus）一起統治巴爾米拉。芝諾比亞成立帕米拉王國，與羅馬當局對抗，並奪取了西到埃及的廣大土地，甚至試圖奪取安條克。在272年，羅馬皇帝奧雷里安反攻，俘虜了芝諾比亞，並在羅馬的凱旋式上讓她帶着金鎖鏈以炫耀戰功。巴爾米拉的叛亂使羅馬很憤怒，帝國對巴爾米拉實行高壓統治，並成為羅馬邊防的軍事基地。戴克里先在這裡增加駐軍並修築更堅固的城牆以抵抗薩珊波斯的威脅。在東羅馬帝國時期城市大部分都被遺棄了。

伊斯蘭時期

這座城市後來被阿拉伯人攻下。在16世紀，在一座附近的山上建造了法克雷丁·馬尼城堡（Fakhredin al Maany）。城堡被一條壕溝圍繞，只能從吊橋進入。後來的一場地震毀滅了巴爾米拉。

現代

伊斯蘭國於2015年5月21日起佔領該遺址並開始進行破壞活動。儘管該組織宣稱不會破壞古城的主體建築，但從BBC所刊發的影片來看，針對寺廟壁畫、雕塑及一些神像遭到徹底摧毀。

敘利亞政府於2016年3月27日收復巴爾米拉時，仍保持約80%的完整性，但有些已毀壞，沒有毀壞的劇院則淪為伊斯蘭國殘暴影片的背景。2016年12月11日，伊斯蘭國再次攻佔巴爾米拉。2017年3月2日敘利亞政府與俄羅斯聯軍在帕米拉攻勢後再次收復。^[1]2024年12月7日，當地被敘利亞自由軍收復。^[2]^[3]^[4]

遺址

現在的廢墟大約保存了城市的原貌。主要的道路網保存完好，一條1.2公里長的有列柱的主幹道從西向東，到貝爾神廟結束。在街的南面有議會、集市和劇場。建築大多是科林斯式的，也受到美索不達米亞和波斯的影響。

在城市的東南面有許多塔狀和地下墓穴。大多數塔狀墳墓可以追溯到羅馬時代以前，而地下墓穴為251年建成的。

貿易

巴爾米拉的貿易遠到埃及、羅馬、印度等地。巴爾米拉的財富主要來源於對商隊的課稅和當地商站。稅收相當可觀，商隊必須經過這座城市，因為他們必須在穿越沙漠的途中在這裡補充水和食物。

宗教

巴爾米拉的宗教主要受巴比倫的影響，但也有當地特色。巴爾米拉的主神是貝爾（Bel），可能是混合了巴力（Baal）和馬杜克（Marduk）而產生的當地神。貝爾是天空之神，世界的創造者和眾神之首。貝爾的旨意被認為可以從星象中反映出來，決定人與國家的命運，或是預示未來。

次於貝爾的神是太陽神亞希波爾（Yarhibol）和月亮神阿格利波爾（Aglibol）。

在2世紀，一種對一位不知名的神靈的崇拜流行了起來，只提到「他的名字是神聖的，慈悲而善良。」這可能和基督教和猶太教有關，也可能受其它宗教影響。

氣候

巴爾米拉
月份	1月	2月	3月	4月	5月	6月	7月	8月	9月	10月	11月	12月	全年
平均高溫 °C（°F）	12.1 (53.8)	14.7 (58.5)	19.4 (66.9)	25.2 (77.4)	30.7 (87.3)	35.4 (95.7)	38.1 (100.6)	37.9 (100.2)	34.4 (93.9)	28.3 (82.9)	19.9 (67.8)	13.5 (56.3)	25.8 (78.4)
平均低溫 °C（°F）	2.5 (36.5)	3.8 (38.8)	6.9 (44.4)	11.5 (52.7)	15.9 (60.6)	19.8 (67.6)	21.5 (70.7)	21.6 (70.9)	19.1 (66.4)	14.3 (57.7)	7.7 (45.9)	3.5 (38.3)	12.3 (54.2)
平均降水量 mm（英寸）	20.8 (0.82)	18.4 (0.72)	21.2 (0.83)	18.3 (0.72)	8.2 (0.32)	0.4 (0.02)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0.3 (0.01)	8.8 (0.35)	16.1 (0.63)	20.2 (0.80)	132.7 (5.22)
平均降水天數	7	10	6	4	2	0	0	0	0	3	5	7	44
數據來源：World Meteorological Organization

參考文獻

^ Syrian army announces recapture of Palmyra from Islamic State. Reuters. 2017-03-02 [2017-03-07]. （原始內容存檔於2019-05-02）.
^ US-backed Syrian Free Army takes control of Homs' Palmyra district from regime forces. Anadolu Agency. [2024-12-07].
^ Şafak, Yeni. US-backed Syrian Free Army takes control of Homs' Palmyra district from regime forces | News. Yeni Şafak. [2024-12-07] （美國英語）.
^ US-backed Syrian Free Army advances in Homs, with reports of clashes with regime forces in Palmyra. www.aa.com.tr. [2024-12-07].

延伸閱讀

Addison, Charles Greenstreet. Damascus and Palmyra: a journey to the East 2. Richard Bentley. 1838. OCLC 833460514.
al-Asaad, Khaled; Chatonnet, Françoise Briquel; Yon, Jean-Baptiste. Reflections on the tokens found in the Arsu temple. Cussini, Eleonora (編). A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers. Brill. 2005. ISBN 978-90-04-12418-9.
al-ʻAsqalānī, Aḥmad ibn ʻAlī Ibn Ḥajar. Ḥabashī, Ḥasan , 編. Inbāʼ al-ghumr bi-anbāʼ al-ʻumr 2. Majlis al-Aʻlá lil-Shuʼūn al-Islāmīyah: Lajnat Iḥyāʼ al-Turāth al-Islāmī. 1969 [1446]. OCLC 22742875 （阿拉伯語）.
al-Maqdissi, Michel. Matériel pour l'Étude de la Ville en Syrie (Deuxième Partie): Urban Planning in Syria during the SUR (Second Urban Revolution) (Mid-third Millennium BC). Al-Rāfidān (Journal of Western Asiatic Studies) (Institulte for Cultural studies of Ancient Iraq, Kokushikan University). 2010,. Special Issue. ISSN 0285-4406.
al-ʻUmarī, Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyá Ibn Faḍl Allāh. al-Sarīḥī, ʻAbd Allāh ibn Yaḥyá , 編. Masālik al-abṣār fī mamālik al-amṣār (مسالك الأبصار في ممالك الأمصار) 3. Abū Dhabī : al-Majmaʻ al-Thaqāfī. 2002 [1348]. OCLC 4771042475 （阿拉伯語）.
al-Ziriklī, Khayr al-Dīn. al-Aʻlām : qāmūs tarājim li-ashhar al-rijāl wa-al-nisāʼ min al-ʻArab wa-al-mustaʻribīn wa-al-mustashriqīn 7 15. Dār al-ʻIlm lil-Malāyīn. 2002 [1927]. OCLC 78683884 （阿拉伯語）.
Ando, Clifford. Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-7486-5534-2.
Andrade, Nathanael J. Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press. 2013. ISBN 978-1-107-01205-9.
Bacharach, Jere L. Marwanid Umayyad Building Activities: Speculations on Patronage. Necipoğlu, Gülru (編). Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Cultures of the Islamic World 13. Brill. 1996. ISBN 978-90-04-25933-1. ISSN 0732-2992.
Ball, Warwick. Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. 2002 [1999]. ISBN 978-1-134-82387-1.
Ball, Warwick. Out of Arabia: Phoenicians, Arabs, and the Discovery of Europe. Asia in Europe and the making of the West 1. East & West Publishing. 2009. ISBN 978-1-56656-801-2.
Barnard, Anne; Saad, Hwaida. Palmyra Temple Was Destroyed by ISIS, U.N. Confirms. The New York Times. 31 August 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2022-09-21）.
Beattie, Andrew; Pepper, Timothy. The Rough Guide to Syria 2. Rough Guides. 2001. ISBN 978-1-85828-718-8.
Belnap, R. Kirk; Haeri, Niloofar. Structuralist Studies in Arabic Linguistics: Charles A. Ferguson's Papers, 1954–1994. Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics 24. Brill. 1997. ISBN 978-90-04-10511-9. ISSN 0081-8461.
Ben-Yehoshua, Shimshon; Borowitz, Carole; Hanus, Lumír Ondøej. Spices: Frankincense, Myrrh, and Balm of Gilead: Ancient Spices of Southern Arabia and Judea. Janick, Jules (編). Horticultural Reviews. Horticultural Reviews 39. John Wiley & Sons. 2012. ISBN 978-1-118-10058-5.
Benzel, Kim; Graff, Sarah B.; Rakic, Yelena; Watts, Edith W. Art of the Ancient Near East: A Resource for Educators. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2010. ISBN 978-1-58839-358-6.
Beyer, Klaus. The Aramaic Language, Its Distribution and Subdivisions. 由Healey, John F.翻譯. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 1986 [1984]. ISBN 978-3-525-53573-8.
Bielińska, Dorota. Small finds from pre-Classical Palmyra. Studia Palmyreńskie (Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw). 1997, 10. ISSN 0081-6787.
Brauer, George C. The Age of the Soldier Emperors: Imperial Rome, A.D. 244–284. Noyes Press. 1975. ISBN 978-0-8155-5036-5.
Browning, Iain. Palmyra. Noyes Press. 1979. ISBN 978-0-8155-5054-9.
Bryce, Trevor. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. 2009. ISBN 978-1-134-15907-9.
Bryce, Trevor. Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. Oxford University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-0-19-100292-2.
Bubeník, Vít. Hellenistic and Roman Greece as a Sociolinguistic Area. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory Series 57. John Benjamins Publishing. 1989. ISBN 978-9-027-23551-0.
Burns, Ross. Monuments of Syria: A Guide revised. I.B.Tauris. 2009 [1992]. ISBN 978-0-85771-489-3.
Burns, Ross. Damascus: A History. Routledge. 2007 [2005]. ISBN 978-1-134-48849-0.
Busta, Hallie. An Open-Source Project to Rebuild Palmyra. The Journal of the American Institute of Architects. 23 October 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2022-08-08）.
Butcher, Kevin. Roman Syria and the Near East. The British Museum Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-7141-2235-9.
Byliński, Janusz. Gawlikowski, Michał; Daszewski, Wiktor A. , 編. Palmyra: Arab Castle. Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean (Warsaw University Press). 1995, 7. ISSN 1234-5415.
Byliński, Janusz. Qal'at Shirkuh at Palmyra: A Medieval Fortress Reinterpreted. Bulletin d'Études Orientales (l'Institut français d'archéologie du Proche-Orient). 1999, 51. ISBN 978-2-901315-56-8. ISSN 2077-4079.
Cameron, Christina; Rössler, Mechtild. Many Voices, One Vision: The Early Years of the World Heritage Convention. Routledge. 2016 [2013]. ISBN 978-1-317-10102-4.
Carissimo, Justin. Isis propaganda video shows 25 Syrian soldiers executed by teenage militants in Palmyra. The Independent. 4 July 2015 [4 March 2017]. （原始內容存檔於24 May 2022）.
Carter, Terry; Dunston, Lara; Thomas, Amelia. Syria & Lebanon. Lonely Planet. 2008. ISBN 978-1-74104-609-0.
Casule, Francesca. Art and History: Syria. 由Boomsliter, Paula Elise; Dunbar, Richard翻譯. Casa Editrice Bonechi. 2008. ISBN 978-88-476-0119-2.
Cave, Terry. The Battle Honours of the Second World War 1939–1945 and Korea 1950–1953: British and Colonial Regiments. Andrews UK Limited. 2012 [2003]. ISBN 978-1-781-51379-8.
Çelebi, Evliya. Narrative of Travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa in the Seventeenth Century 1. 由von Hammer-Purgstall, Freiherr翻譯. Oriental Translation Fund. 1834 [1681]. OCLC 754957231.
Chamberlain, Michael. Military Patronage States and the Political economy of the Frontier, 1000–1250. Choueiri, Youssef M. (編). A Companion to the History of the Middle East. Blackwell Publishing. 2005. ISBN 978-1-4051-5204-4.
Chapot, Victor. Ogden, Charles Kay , 編. The Roman World. The History of Civilization. 由Parker, Edward Adams翻譯. Routledge. 2014 [1928]. ISBN 978-1-134-73140-4.
Charnock, Richard Stephen. Local Etymology: A Derivative Dictionary of Geographical Names. Houlston and Wright. 1859. OCLC 4696115.
Cline, Eric H.; Graham, Mark W. Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press. 2011. ISBN 978-0-521-88911-7.
Cobb, Paul M. White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880. State University of New York Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-7914-4880-9.
Colledge, Malcolm Andrew Richard. The Art of Palmyra. Studies in Ancient Art and Archaeology 4. Thames & Hudson. 1976. ISBN 978-0-89158-617-3.
Colledge, Malcolm Andrew Richard. van Baaren, Theodoor Pieter; van den Bosch, Lourens Peter; Kippenberg, Hans Gerhard; Leertouwer, Lammert; Leemhuis, Fred; te Velde, Henk; Witte, Hans Antonius; Buning, H. , 編. The Parthian Period. Iconography of Religions. Section XIV: Iran (Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen) 3. Brill. 1986. ISBN 978-90-04-07115-5. ISSN 0169-9873.
Colledge, Malcolm Andrew Richard; Wiesehöfer, Josef. Palmyra. Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (編). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization 2. Oxford University Press. 2014 [1998]. ISBN 978-0-19-870677-9.
Cooke, George Albert. A Text-Book of North-Semitic Inscriptions: Moabite, Hebrew, Phoenician, Aramaic, Nabataean, Palmyrene, Jewish. The Clarendon Press. 1903. ISBN 978-5-87188-785-1.
Cotterman, William W. Improbable Women: Five who Explored the Middle East. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse University Press. 2013. ISBN 978-0-8156-5231-1.
Crawford, J. Stephens. The Byzantine Shops at Sardis. Monograph / Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 9. Harvard University Press. 1990. ISBN 978-0-674-08968-6. ISSN 0066-5975.
Curry, Andrew. Mystery of Lost Roman City Solved: Ancients Greened the Desert?. National Geographic News. 20 July 2012 [11 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2019-04-24）.
Dąbrowa, Edward. Les Troupes Auxiliaires de L'armée Romaine en Syrie au Ier Siècle de Notre ère. Dialogues d'Histoire Ancienne. Annales littéraires de l'Université de Besançon (Volume 239) (les Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté). 1979, 5. ISBN 978-2-251-60239-4. ISSN 0755-7256. doi:10.3406/dha.1979.1387.
Dąbrowa, Edward. Legio X Fretensis. A Prosopographical Study of its Officers (I–III c. AD). Historia Einzelschriften 66. Franz Steiner Verlag. 1993. ISBN 978-3-515-05809-4. |journal=被忽略 (幫助)
Darke, Diana. Syria. Bradt Travel Guides. 2006. ISBN 978-1-84162-162-3.
Darke, Diana. Syria 2. Bradt Travel Guides. 2010 [2006]. ISBN 978-1-84162-314-6.
Dearden, Lizzie. Isis driven out of ancient Syrian city of Palmyra for second time. The Independent. 2 March 2017 [4 March 2017]. （原始內容存檔於24 May 2022）.
De Blois, Lukas. The Policy of the Emperor Gallienus. Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society: Studies of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society 7. Brill. 1976. ISBN 978-90-04-04508-8.
De Laborde, Leon. Journey Through Arabia Petraea, To Mount Sinai, And The Excavated City Of Petra, The Edom Of The Prophecies 1836. The Quarterly Christian Spectator (New Haven: A. H. Maltby). 1837, 9. OCLC 176276638.
Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert. Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge University Press. 2007 [2001]. ISBN 978-0-521-84925-8.
Dirven, Lucinda. The Palmyrene diaspora in East and West : a Syrian community in the diaspora in the Roman period. ter Haar, Gerrie (編). Strangers and sojourners: religious communities in the diaspora. Peeters Publishers. 1998. ISBN 978-90-429-0663-1.
Dirven, Lucinda. The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 138. Brill. 1999. ISBN 978-90-04-11589-7. ISSN 0927-7633.
Dixon, Karen R.; Southern, Patricia. The Roman Cavalry. Routledge. 2005 [1992]. ISBN 978-1-135-11407-7.
Downey, Susan. "Temples a Escaliers": The Dura Evidence. Stroud, Ronald S.; Levine, Philip (編). California Studies in Classical Antiquity 9. University of California Press. 1977. ISBN 978-0-520-09565-6.
Downey, Susan. Funerary sculptures of Palmyra; Review of A. Sadurska and A. Bounni, Les sculptures funéraires de Palmyre. Journal of Roman Archaeology. 1996, 9. ISSN 1047-7594.
Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem. van Baaren, Theodoor Pieter; Leertouwer, Lammert; Leemhuis, Fred; Buning, H. , 編. The Religion of Palmyra. Iconography of Religions. Section XV Mesopotamia and the Near East (Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen). Brill. 1976. ISBN 978-0-585-36013-3. ISSN 0169-8036. OCLC 714982019.
Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem. Cults and Beliefs at Edessa. Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain 82. Brill. 1980. ISBN 978-90-04-06050-0.
Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem. The Syrian Cult Relief. Kippenberg, Hans G.; van den Bosch, Lourens P.; Leertouwer, Lammert; Witte, Hans Antonius (編). Genres in Visual Representations: Proceedings of a Conference Held in 1986 by Invitation of the Werner-Reimers-Stiftung in Bad Homburg (Federal Republic of Germany).. Visible Religion. Annual for Religious Iconography (Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen) 7. Brill. 1990. ISBN 978-90-04-09094-1.
Drinkwater, John. Maximinus to Diocletian and the 'crisis'. Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (編). The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337. The Cambridge Ancient History 12. Cambridge University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-521-30199-2.
Dubnov, Simon. History of the Jews From the Roman Empire to the Early Medieval Period 2. 由Spiegel, Moshe翻譯. Thomas Yoseloff. 1968 [1916]. OCLC 900833618.
Dupont-Sommer, André. Une Nouvelle Inscription Araméenne d'Asoka Trouvée Dans la Vallée du Laghman (Afghanistan). Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres). 1970, 114 (1). ISSN 0151-0509.
Edwell, Peter. Between Rome and Persia: The Middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra Under Roman Control. Routledge. 2008. ISBN 978-1-134-09573-5.
Ehrenkreutz, Andrew S. Saladin. State University of New York Press. 1972. ISBN 978-0-87395-095-4.
Élisséeff, Nikita. Homs. Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (編). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. EI Reference Guides 1. Brill. 2007. ISBN 978-90-04-15388-2.
Elton, Hugh. Frontiers of the Roman Empire. Indiana University Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0-253-33111-3.
Evans, Jean M.; Kevorkian, Hagop. Palmyra. Milleker, Elizabeth J. (編). The Year One: Art of the Ancient World East and West. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2000. ISBN 978-0-87099-961-1.
Fellmann, Rudolf. Der Palast der Königin Zenobia. al-Asaad, Khaled; Ruprechtsberger, Erwin Maria (編). Palmyra, Geschichte, Kunst und Kultur der Syrischen Oasenstadt: Einführende Beiträge und Katalog zur Ausstellung. Linzer Archäologische Forschungen 16. Gutenberg. 1987. ISBN 978-3-900-40115-3 （德語）.
Fields, Nic. The Walls of Rome. Osprey Publishing. 2008. ISBN 978-1-84603-198-4.
Fowden, Elizabeth Key. The Barbarian Plain: Saint Sergius between Rome and Iran. Transformation of the Classical Heritage 28. University of California Press. 1999. ISBN 978-0-520-92220-4.
Fowden, Garth. Qusayr 'Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria. Transformation of the Classical Heritage Series 36. University of California Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-520-92960-9.
Gambino, Lauren. Damages to Palmyra ruins in Syrian recapture less than feared, experts say. The Guardian. 28 March 2016 [12 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2022-10-12）.
Gates, Charles. Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome. Routledge. 2003. ISBN 978-1-134-67662-0.
Gawlikowski, Michal. The City of the Dead. Cussini, Eleonora (編). A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers. Brill. 2005. ISBN 978-90-04-12418-9.
Gawlikowski, Michał. Zych, Iwona; Szymczak, Agnieszka , 編. Palmyra: reexcavating the site of the Tariff (fieldwork in 2010 and 2011). Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean (Warsaw University Press). 2011, 23 (1). ISSN 1234-5415.
Gawlikowski, Michał. Preface. Studia Palmyreńskie (Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw). 2013,. 12: Fifty Years of Polish Excavations in Palmyra 1959–2009, International Conference,Warsaw, 6–8 December 2010 [2022-08-12]. ISSN 0081-6787. （原始內容存檔於2022-08-12）.
Gibb, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen. The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades: Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi Dover. Dover publications. 2002 [1932]. ISBN 978-0-486-42519-1.
Grabar, Oleg; Holod, Reneta; Knustad, James; Trousdale, William. City in the Desert. Qasr al-Hayr East. Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs 23–24. Harvard University Press. 1978. ISBN 978-0-674-13195-8.
Graf, David F. Zenobia and the Arabs. French, David H.; Lightfoot, Chris S. (編). The Eastern frontier of the Roman Empire: proceedings of a colloquium held at Ankara in September 1988 (Volume 1). British Archaeological Reports 553. BAR Publishing. 1989. ISBN 978-0-86054-700-6.
Grainger, John D. A Seleukid Prosopography and Gazetteer. Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava. Supplementum 172. Brill. 1997. ISBN 978-9-004-10799-1. ISSN 0169-8958.
Grainger, John D. The Battle for Syria, 1918–1920. Boydell Press. 2013. ISBN 978-1-84383-803-6.
Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, part 2, AD 363–628. Routledge. 2005 [2002]. ISBN 978-1-134-75646-9.
Greenberg, Andy. A Jailed Activist's 3-D Models Could Save Syria's History From ISIS. Wired. 21 October 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2017-08-13）.
Greene, Joseph A. Aram. Metzger, Bruce Manning; Coogan, Michael David (編). The Oxford Guide to People & Places of the Bible. Oxford University Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-19-517610-0.
Guntern, Gottlieb. The Spirit of Creativity: Basic Mechanisms of Creative Achievements. University Press of America. 2010. ISBN 978-0-7618-5053-3.
Hachlili, Rachel. Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 the near and Middle East Series 35. Brill. 1998. ISBN 978-90-04-10878-3.
Halsberghe, Gaston H. The Cult of Sol Invictus. Études Préliminaires aux Religions Orientales dans l'Empire Romain 23. Brill. 1972. ISBN 978-9-004-30831-2.
Hamilton, Bernard. The Leper King and His Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem Digitally Printed First Paperback Version. Cambridge University Press. 2005 [2000]. ISBN 978-0-521-01747-3.
Hanihara, Kazurō; Sakaguchi, Yutaka; Akazawa, Takeru. Paleolithic site of the Douara Cave and paleogeography of Palmyra Basin in Syria. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. 1978. ISBN 978-0-86008-209-5.
Hanne, Eric J. Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-8386-4113-2.
Harris, William. Lebanon: A History, 600–2011. Oxford University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-19-021783-9.
Hartmann, Udo. Das palmyrenische Teilreich. Franz Steiner Verlag. 2001. ISBN 978-3-515-07800-9 （德語）.
Hartmann, Udo. What was it Like to be a Palmyrene in the Age of Crisis? Changing Palmyrene Identities in the Third Century AD. Kropp, Andreas; Raja, Rubina (編). The World of Palmyra. Palmyrenske Studier 1. The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters- Specialtrykkeriet Viborg a-s. 2016 [2022-08-12]. ISBN 978-8-773-04397-4. ISSN 1904-5506. （原始內容存檔於2022-08-12）.
Hawting, Gerald R. Marwan II. Bosworth, Clifford Edmund; van Donzel, Emeri J.; Lewis, Bernard; Pellat, Charles (編). The Encyclopaedia of Islam (New Edition/EI-2) 6. Brill. 1991. ISBN 978-90-04-08112-3.
Healey, John F. The Early Alphabet. Reading the Past 9. University of California Press. 1990. ISBN 978-0-520-07309-8. ISSN 1754-7989.
Healey, John F. Aramaic Inscriptions and Documents of the Roman Period. Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inscriptions 4. Oxford University Press. 2009. ISBN 978-0-19-925256-5.
Hijmans, Steven Ernst. Sol: The Sun in the Art and Religions of Rome. University Library Groningen. 2009 [2022-08-12]. ISBN 978-9-036-73931-3. （原始內容存檔於2020-03-06）.
Hillenbrand, Robert. 'Anjar and Early Islamic Urbanism. Brogiolo, Gian Pietro; Perkins, Bryan Ward (編). The Idea and Ideal of the Town Between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. The Transformation of the Roman World 4. Brill. 1999. ISBN 978-90-04-10901-8. ISSN 1386-4165.
Hoffmann-Salz, Julia. The Local Economy of Palmyra: Organizing Agriculture in an Oasis Environment. Erdkamp, Paul; Verboven, Koenraad; Zuiderhoek, Arjan (編). Ownership and Exploitation of Land and Natural Resources in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. 2015. ISBN 978-0-19-872892-4.
Holmes, Oliver. Syria's ancient oasis city of Palmyra threatened in fighting. Reuters. 3 April 2013 [12 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2022-08-12）.
Holt, Peter Malcolm. The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517. Routledge. 2013 [1986]. ISBN 978-1-317-87152-1.
Holt, Peter Malcolm. Early Mamluk Diplomacy, 1260–1290: Treaties of Baybars and Qalāwūn with Christian Rulers. Islamic History and Civilization. Studies and Texts 12. Brill. 1995. ISBN 978-90-04-10246-0.
Hourani, George Fadlo. Carswell, John , 編. Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times. Khayats Oriental Reprints 3 expanded. Princeton University Press. 1995 [1951]. ISBN 978-0-691-00032-9.
Howard, Michael C. Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel. McFarland. 2012. ISBN 978-0-7864-9033-2.
Hoyland, Robert G. Arabia and the Arabs. From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. 2001. ISBN 978-0-415-19535-5.
Hudson, Leila G. Transforming Damascus: Space and Modernity in an Islamic City. Tauris Academic Studies. 2008. ISBN 978-1-84511-579-1.
Humphreys, R. Stephen. From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260. State University of New York Press. 1977. ISBN 978-0-87395-263-7.
Ibn al-ʻAdīm, Kamāl al-Dīn ʻUmar ibn Aḥmad. Zakkār, Suhayl , 編. Bughyat al-ṭalab fī tārīkh Ḥalab 7. Dār al-Fikr (دار الفكر). 1988 [1262]. OCLC 30968859 （阿拉伯語）.
Ibn al-Qalanisi, Abū Yaʻlā Ḥamzah ibn Asad ibn ʻAlī ibn Muḥammad al-Tamīmī. Zakkār, Suhayl , 編. Tārīkh Dimashq. Dār Ḥassān. 1983 [1160]. OCLC 23834177 （阿拉伯語）.
Ibn Arabshah, Ahmad ibn Muhammad. Ḥimṣī, Fāyiz , 編. ʻAjāʼib al-maqdūr fī nawāʼib Tīmūr. Muʼassasat al-Risālah. 1986 [1437]. OCLC 19942469 （阿拉伯語）.
Ibn 'Asakir, Ali ibn al-Hasan ibn Hibat Allah ibn 'Abd Allah, Thiqat al-Din, Abu al-Qasim. ʻAmrawī, ʻUmar ibn Gharāmah , 編. Tarikh Madinat Dimashiq (تاريخ مدينة دمشق) 57. Dār al-Fikr (دار الفكر). 1995 [1174]. OCLC 4770667638 （阿拉伯語）.
Ibn Battuta, Muhammad. Tāzī, ʻAbd al-Hādī , 編. Riḥlat Ibn Baṭūṭah al-musammāh Tuḥfat al-nuẓẓār fī gharāʼib al-amṣār wa-ʻajāʼib al-asfār. Silsilat al-turāth 1. Akādīmīyat al-Mamlakah al-Maghribīyah. 1997 [1355]. OCLC 37241892 （阿拉伯語）.
Ibn Khaldūn, ʻAbd al-Raḥmān. Zakkār, Suhayl; Šaḥāda, Ḫalīl , 編. Muqaddima (al-ʻibar wa-dīwān al-mubtadaʼ wa-al-khabar f̣ī ayyām al-ʻArab wa-al-ʻAjam ẉa-al-Barbar wa-man ʻāṣarahum min dhawī al-sulṭān al-al-akbar wa-huwa tarīkh waḥīd ʻaṣrih) 5 2. Dār al-Fikr (دار الفكر). 1988 [1375]. OCLC 912572900 （阿拉伯語）.
Ibn Šaddād, Bahā' ad-Dīn Yūsuf Ibn-Rāfiʿ. Vita et res gestae sultani Almalichi Alnasiri Saladini. 由Schultens, Albert翻譯. Samuel Luchtmans. 1732 [1228]. OCLC 716049041 （拉丁語）.
Intagliata, Emanuele E. Palmyra after Zenobia AD 273–750: An Archaeological and Historical Reappraisal. Oxbow Books. 2018. ISBN 978-1-785-70945-6.
Irwin, Robert. Tribal Feuding and Mamluk Factions in Medieval Syria. Robinson, Chase F. (編). Texts, Documents, and Artefacts: Islamic Studies in Honour of D.S. Richards. Islamic History and Civilization. Studies and Texts 45. Brill. 2003. ISBN 978-90-04-12864-4.
Ismail, Farouk. Relations between Misherfeh-Qatna and the Middle Euphrates Region in the Middle Bronze Age (2000–1600 B.C.). Maqdissi, Michel; Abdulkarim, Maamoun (編). The Syrian Djezireh: Cultural Heritage and Interrelations. International Colloquium: Deir ez-Zor, April 22–25, 1996. Documents d'Archéologie Syrienne 1. Dimashq: Wizārat al-Thaqāfah, al-Mudīrīyah al-ʻĀmmah lil-Āthār wa-al-Matāḥif. 2002. OCLC 192118525.
Izumi, Takura. The Remains of Palmyra, the City of Caravans, and an Estimation of the City's Ancient Environment. Silk Roadology: Bulletin of the Research Center for Silk Roadology (Research Center for Silk Roadology). 1995, 1. OCLC 174059209.
Jeffries, Stuart. Isis's destruction of Palmyra: 'The heart has been ripped out of the city'. The Guardian. 2 September 2015 [4 March 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2022-10-06）.
Juchniewicz, Karol. Late Roman fortifications in Palmyra. Studia Palmyreńskie (Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw). 2013,. 12: Fifty Years of Polish Excavations in Palmyra 1959–2009, International Conference,Warsaw, 6–8 December 2010 [2022-08-12]. ISSN 0081-6787. （原始內容存檔於2022-08-12）.
Kaizer, Ted. Kingly Priests in the Roman Near East?. Hekster, Olivier; Fowler, Richard (編). Imaginary Kings: Royal Images in the Ancient Near East, Greece and Rome. Oriens et Occidens 11. Franz Steiner Verlag. 2005. ISBN 978-3-515-08765-0.
Kaizer, Ted. Trajectories of Hellenism at Tadmor-Palmyra and Dura-Europos. Chrubasik, Boris; King, Daniel (編). Hellenism and the Local Communities of the Eastern Mediterranean: 400 BCE–250 CE. Oxford University Press. 2017. ISBN 978-0-192-52819-3.
Kennedy, David; Riley, Derrick. Rome's Desert Frontiers. Routledge. 2004 [1990]. ISBN 978-1-135-78269-6.
Kennedy, Hugh N. The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East. Variorum Collected Studies Series 860. Ashgate Publishing. 2006. ISBN 978-0-7546-5909-9.
Kitto, John. The Pictorial Bible – being the Old and New Testaments according to authorized versions 2. Charles Knight & Co. 1837. OCLC 729755279.
Le Strange, Guy. Palestine under the Moslems, a description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the works of the medieval Arab geographers. Houghton, Mifflin and Co. 1890. OCLC 5965873.
Levick, Barbara. Julia Domna: Syrian Empress. Routledge. 2007. ISBN 978-1-134-32351-7.
Limet, Henri. Permanence et changement dans la toponymie. Fahd, Toufic (編). La Toponymie Antique (actes du colloque de Strasbourg, 12–14 juin 1975). Travaux du Centre de recherche sur le Proche-Orient et la Grèce antiques 4. Brill. 1977. OCLC 629792501 （法語）.
Liverani, Mario. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Routledge. 2013. ISBN 978-1-134-75084-9.
Loewe, Herbert Martin James. The Seljuqs. Bury, John Bagnell; Tanner, Joseph Robson; Previté-Orton, Charles William; Brooke, Zachary Nugent (編). The Eastern Roman Empire. The Cambridge Medieval History 4. Cambridge University Press. 1923. OCLC 650498400.
Loveluck, Louisa. Syrian regime 'launches air strike on world famous ancient city of Palmyra'. The Telegraph. 16 June 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於16 June 2015）.
Luxenberg, Christoph. The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: A Contribution to the Decoding of the Language of the Koran. Verlag Hans Schiler. 2007 [2000]. ISBN 978-3-89930-088-8.
MacDowall, David w.; Taddei, Maurizio. The Early Historic Period: Achaemenids and Greeks. Allchin, Frank Raymond; Hammond, Norman (編). The Archaeology of Afghanistan from Earliest Times to the Timurid Period. Academic Press. 1978. ISBN 978-0-120-50440-4.
Mackay, Christopher S. Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. Cambridge University Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-521-80918-4.
Mackay, Mairi. Palmyra: Will ISIS bulldoze ancient Syrian city?. CNN. 18 May 2015 [2 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2015-07-16）.
Majcherek, Grzegorz. Excavating the basilicas. Studia Palmyreńskie (Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw). 2013,. 12 (Fifty Years of Polish Excavations in Palmyra 1959–2009: International Conference, Warsaw, 6–8 December 2010). ISSN 0081-6787.
Major, Balázs. Al-Malik Al-Mujahid, Ruler of Homs, and the Hospitallers (The Evidence in the Chronicle of Ibn Wasil). Hunyadi, Zsolt; Laszlovszky, József (編). The Crusades and the Military Orders: Expanding the Frontiers of Medieval Latin Christianity. Central European University Medievalia Series 1. Central European University Press. 2001. ISBN 978-963-9241-42-8. ISSN 1587-6470.
Makieh, Kinda. Islamic State militants blow up ancient Arch of Triumph in Palmyra. Reuters. 4 October 2015 [2 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2022-08-12）.
Makieh, Kinda. Palmyra's dynamited temple can be restored, de-miners use robots. Reuters. 2 April 2016 [12 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2017-05-10）.
Makieh, Kinda; Francis, Ellen. Less damage to ancient Palmyra than feared, Syrian antiquities chief says. Reuters. 3 March 2017 [6 March 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2022-08-12）.
Makieh, Kinda; Perry, Tom; Merriman, Jane. Palmyra statue damaged by Islamic State goes on display in Damascus. Reuters. 1 October 2017 [3 October 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2020-11-17）.
Maqdisi, Firas. Expert says Islamic State has badly damaged major Palmyra monument. Reuters. 5 March 2017 [6 March 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2022-08-12）.
Markowski, Bartosz. Gawlikowski, Michał; Daszewski, Wiktor A. , 編. The Lion of Allat in Palmyra New Museum Display Project. Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean (Warsaw University Press). 2005, 16. ISSN 1234-5415.
Matthiae, Paolo. Archeaologist says '70% of Palmyra can be rebuilt'. Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata (ANSA). 30 June 2017 [4 July 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2022-02-21）.
Macdonald, Michael C. A. On Saracens, the Rawwāfah Inscription and the Roman Army. Literacy and Identity in Pre-Islamic Arabia. Variorum Collected Studies Series. Ashgate Variorum. 2009 [2022-08-12]. ISBN 978-0-754-65965-5. （原始內容存檔於2022-08-12）.
McGirk, Tim. Syrians Race to Save Ancient City's Treasures from ISIS. National Geographic News. 10 July 2015 [2 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2019-06-09）.
McLaughlin, Raoul. Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the ancient lands of Arabia, India and China. Continuum International Publishing Group. 2010. ISBN 978-1-4411-6223-6.
Meier, Christian. The Greek Discovery of Politics. 由McLintock, David翻譯. Harvard University Press. 1990 [1980]. ISBN 978-0-674-36232-1.
Mennen, Inge. Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Impact of Empire 12. Brill. 2011. ISBN 978-90-04-20359-4.
Métral, Francoise. Managing Risk: Sheep-Rearing and Agriculture in the Syrian Steppe. Mundy, Martha; Musallam, Basim (編). The Transformation of Nomadic Society in the Arab East. University of Cambridge Oriental Publications 58. Cambridge University Press. 2000. ISBN 978-0-521-77057-6. ISSN 0068-6891.
Meyer, Jørgen Christian. City and Hinterland. Villages and Estates North of Palmyra. New Perspectives. Studia Palmyreńskie (Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw). 2013, 12. ISSN 0081-6787.
Meyer, Jørgen Christian. Palmyrena: Palmyra and the Surrounding Territory from the Roman to the Early Islamic Period. Archaeopress Publishing. 2017a. ISBN 978-1-784-91708-1.
Meyer, Jørgen Christian. The Bride of the Dry Steppe: Palmyra and the Surrounding Territory. Aruz, Joan (編). Palmyra: Mirage in the Desert. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2017b. ISBN 978-1-588-39631-0.
Michalska, Julia. The man who spent 40 years preserving Palmyra's past. The Art Newspaper. 21 October 2016 [15 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於20 December 2016）.
Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Harvard University Press. 1993. ISBN 978-0-674-77886-3.
Millar, Fergus. Cotton, Hannah M.; Rogers, Guy M. , 編. The Greek World, the Jews & the East. Rome, the Greek World, and the East 3. University of North Carolina Press. 2006. ISBN 978-0-807-87665-7.
Millar, Fergus. Theodoret of Cyrrhus: A Syrian in Greek Dress?. Amirav, Hagit; ter Haar Romeny, Bas (編). From Rome to Constantinople: Studies in Honour of Averil Cameron. Late Antique History and Religion 1. Peeters Publishers. 2007. ISBN 978-90-429-1971-6. ISSN 2030-5915.
Moubayed, Sami. Syria and the USA: Washington's Relations with Damascus from Wilson to Eisenhower. Library of International Relations 56. I.B.Tauris. 2012. ISBN 978-1-780-76768-0.
Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath. Studies in Aramaic Edicts of Aśoka 2. Kolkata: Indian Museum. 2000 [1984]. OCLC 62327000.
Murtonen, Aimo Edvard. Hospers, Johannes Hendrik , 編. Hebrew in its West Semitic Setting. A Comparative Survey of Non-Masoretic Hebrew Dialects and Traditions. Part 1. A Comparative Lexicon. Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics 13. Brill. 1986. ISBN 978-90-04-08899-3.
Neep, Daniel. Occupying Syria Under the French Mandate: Insurgency, Space and State Formation. Cambridge Middle East Studies 38. Cambridge University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-1-107-00006-3.
O'Connor, Michael Patrick. The etymologies of Tadmor and Palmyra. Arbeitman, Yoël L. (編). A Linguistic Happening in Memory of Ben Schwartz: Studies in Anatolian, Italic, and Other Indo-European Languages. Bibliothèque des Cahiers de l'Institut de linguistique de Louvain (BCILL) 42. Peeters Publishers. 1988. ISBN 978-90-6831-143-3. ISSN 0779-1666.
O'Connor, Roisin. Isis in Syria: Militants 'severely damage' ancient Bel Temple in Palmyra using explosives. The Independent. 30 August 2015 [4 March 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2017-03-05）.
Peters, John Punnett. Deir. Chisholm, Hugh (編). Encyclopædia Britannica 07 (第11版). London: Cambridge University Press: 933. 1911.
Petersen, Andrew. Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. Routledge. 1996. ISBN 978-1-134-61365-6.
Plets, Gertjan. Violins and Trowels for Palmyra: Post-Conflict Heritage Politics. Anthropology Today (Royal Anthropological Institute). 2017, 33 (4). ISSN 1467-8322.
Pollard, Nigel. Soldiers, Cities, and Civilians in Roman Syria. University of Michigan Press. 2000. ISBN 978-0-472-11155-8.
Potter, David S. The Transformation of the Empire: 235–337 CE. Potter, David S. (編). A Companion to the Roman Empire. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World 32. Blackwell Publishing. 2010. ISBN 978-1-4051-9918-6.
Purcell, Nicholas. Rome's New Kings (31 BC – AD 476). Jones, Peter V.; Sidwell, Keith C. (編). The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture. Cambridge University Press. 1997. ISBN 978-0-521-38600-5.
Qaddūrī, Zubayr Sulṭān. al-Thawrah al-mansīyah. Ittiḥād al-Kuttāb al-ʻArab. 2000. OCLC 45642553 （阿拉伯語）.
Qassim, Abdul-Zahra. IS destruction of ancient Syrian temple erases rich history. CNS News. 24 August 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於20 December 2016）.
Qīṭāz, ʻAdnān. Muhana Family. Shukrī, Muḥammad ʻAzīz (編). al-Mawsūʻah al-ʻArabīyah 19. al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah al-Sūrīyah, Riʼāsat al-Jumhūrīyah, Hayʼat al-Mawsūʻah al-ʻArabīyah. 2007. OCLC 46672427 （阿拉伯語）.
Raja, Rubina. Urban Development and Regional Identity in the Eastern Roman Provinces, 50 BC-AD 250: Aphrodisias, Ephesos, Athens, Gerasa. Museum Tusculanum Press. 2012. ISBN 978-87-635-2606-7.
Raschke, Manfred G. New Studies in Roman Commerce with the East. Temporini, Hildegard; Wolfgang, Haase (編). Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, II Principat. Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt (ANRW) 9. De Gruyter. 1978. ISBN 978-3-11-001885-1.
Ricca, Simone. Palmyra. Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E. (編). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. 2007. ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5.
Richardson, Peter. City and Sanctuary: Religion and Architecture in the Roman Near East. SCM Press. 2002. ISBN 978-0-334-02884-0.
Robinson, David M. Baalbek, Palmyra. J.J. Augustin. 1946. OCLC 426276.
Romano, Irene Bald. Classical Sculpture: Catalogue of the Cypriot, Greek, and Roman Stone Sculpture in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. University Museum Monograph 125. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2006. ISBN 978-1-934536-29-2.
Rosenthal, Franz. The Second Laghmân Inscription. Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies (Israel Exploration Society). 1978,. 14: H.L. Ginsberg Volume. ISSN 0071-108X.
Rostovtzeff., Michael Ivanovitch. Harmon, Austin M. , 編. Seleucid Babylonia : Bullae and Seals of Clay with Greek Inscriptions. Yale Classical Studies (Yale University Press). 1932, 3. ISSN 0084-330X.
Rostovtzeff, Michael Ivanovitch. Out of the Past of Greece & Rome. Biblo and Tannen's Graeco Life and Times Series 6. Biblo & Tannen Publishers. 1971 [1932]. ISBN 978-0-8196-0126-1.
Rostovtzeff, Michael Ivanovitch. Caravan Cities. 由Rice, David Talbot; Rice, Tamara Talbot翻譯. The Clarendon Press. 1932. OCLC 2153578.
Sader, Hélène. History. van Soldt, Wilfred; Beckman, Gary; Leitz, Christian; Michalowski, Piotr; Miglus, Peter A.; Gzella, Holger (編). The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 The Near and Middle East 106. Brill. 2014. ISBN 978-9-004-22845-0. ISSN 0169-9423.
Sartre, Maurice. The Arabs and the Desert Peoples. Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (編). The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337. The Cambridge Ancient History 12. Cambridge University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-521-30199-2.
Saul, Heather. Isis in Palmyra: Civilians forced to watch execution of 20 men at amphitheatre. The Independent. 28 May 2015 [4 March 2017]. （原始內容存檔於26 October 2015）.
Schlumberger, Daniel. Bornes frontières de la Palmyrène. Syria (l'Institut Français du Proche-Orient). 1939, 20 (1): 43–73. ISSN 0039-7946. doi:10.3406/syria.1939.4166 （法語）.
Schmidt-Colinet, Andreas. Aspects of 'Romanization': The Tomb Architecture at Palmyra and Its Decoration. Alcock, Susan E. (編). The Early Roman Empire in the East. Oxbow Monographs in Archaeology 95. Oxbow Books. 1997. ISBN 978-1-900188-52-4.
Seland, Eivind Heldaas. Networks and Social Cohesion in Ancient Indian Ocean Trade: Geography, Ethnicity, Religion. Journal of Global History (Cambridge University Press). 2013, 8 (3): 373–390. ISSN 1740-0228. doi:10.1017/S1740022813000338 .
Seyrig, Henri. Antiquités Syriennes 29: A propos du culte de Zeus à Séleucie. Syria (Institut français du Proche-Orient). 1939, 20 (4) [2022-08-12]. ISSN 0039-7946. （原始內容存檔於2022-07-05）（法語）.
Seyrig, Henri. Antiquités Syriennes 76: Caractères de l'histoire d'Émèse. Syria (l'Institut Français du Proche-Orient). 1959, 36 (3–4) [2022-08-12]. ISSN 0039-7946. （原始內容存檔於2022-07-09）（法語）.
Shaheen, Kareem; Swann, Glenn; Levett, Cath. Palmyra – what the world has lost. The Guardian. 5 October 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2022-08-22）.
Shaheen, Kareem. Palmyra: historic Syrian city falls under control of Isis. The Guardian. 21 May 2015 [13 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2022-10-03）.
Shaheen, Kareem. Isis destroys tetrapylon monument in Palmyra. The Guardian. 20 January 2017 [20 January 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2022-09-21）.
Shahîd, Irfan. Rome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 1984. ISBN 978-0-88402-115-5.
Shahîd, Irfan. Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century (Part1: Political and Military History) 1. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 1995. ISBN 978-0-88402-214-5.
Shahîd, Irfan. Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century (Part1: Toponymy, Monuments, Historical Geography, and Frontier Studies) 2. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 2002. ISBN 978-0-88402-284-8.
Sidebotham, Steven E.; Hense, Martin; Nouwens, Hendrikje M. The Red Land: The Illustrated Archaeology of Egypt's Eastern Desert. American University in Cairo Press. 2008. ISBN 978-977-416-094-3.
Sivertsev, Alexei. Private Households and Public Politics in 3rd–5th Century Jewish Palestine. Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum 90. Mohr Siebeck. 2002. ISBN 978-3-16-147780-5. ISSN 0721-8753.
Smith, Sidney. Ursu and Ḫaššum. Anatolian Studies (Cambridge University Press on Behalf of the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara). 1956, 6: 35–43. ISSN 0066-1546. JSTOR 3642395. S2CID 155659015. doi:10.2307/3642395.
Smith II, Andrew M. Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oxford University Press. 2013. ISBN 978-0-19-986110-1.
Sommer, Michael. Palmyra: a History. Cities of the Ancient World 6. Routledge. 2018. ISBN 978-0-415-72002-1.
Southern, Patricia. Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. Continuum International Publishing Group. 2008. ISBN 978-1-4411-4248-1.
Speake, Graham. Palmyra (Homs, Syria). Berney, Kathryn Ann; Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle (編). International Dictionary of Historic Places. 4 (Middle East and Africe). Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. 1996. ISBN 978-1-884964-03-9.
Squires, Nick. Stone Sculptures Smashed by ISIL in Ancient City of Palmyra Restored to Former Glory by Italian Experts. The Telegraph. 16 February 2017 [16 June 2017]. （原始內容存檔於12 January 2022）.
Stoneman, Richard. Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. University of Michigan Press. 1994 [1992]. ISBN 978-0-472-08315-2.
Strong, Donald Emrys. Toynbee, Jocelyn Mary Catherine; Ling, Roger , 編. Roman Art. Pelican History of Art 44. Yale University Press. 1995 [1976]. ISBN 978-0-300-05293-0. ISSN 0553-4755.
Teixidor, Javier. The Pantheon of Palmyra. Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain 79. Brill. 1979. ISBN 978-90-04-05987-0.
Teixidor, Javier. Palmyra in the third century. Cussini, Eleonora (編). A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers. Brill. 2005. ISBN 978-90-04-12418-9.
Terpak, Frances; Bonfitto, Peter Louis. The Legacy of Ancient Palmyra. The Getty Research Institute. 2017 [10 February 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2017-02-09）.
Tharoor, Kanishk; Maruf, Maryam. Museum of Lost Objects: The Temple of Bel. BBC News. 1 March 2016 [29 June 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2022-08-12）.
Tomlinson, Richard A. From Mycenae to Constantinople: The Evolution of the Ancient City. Routledge. 2003 [1992]. ISBN 978-1-134-92894-1.
Tuck, Steven L. A History of Roman Art. John Wiley & Sons. 2015. ISBN 978-1-4443-3025-0.
van der Toorn, Karel. Becoming Diaspora Jews: Behind the Story of Elephantine. Yale University Press. 2019. ISBN 978-0-300-24949-1.
van Koppen, Frans. Pfälzner, Peter , 編. Qaṭna in altsyrischer Zeit. Qaṭna Studien Supplementa: Übergreifende und vergleichende Forschungsaktivitäten des Qaṭna-Projekts der Universität Tübingen (Harrassowitz Verlag). 2015,. 2: Qaṭna and the Networks of Bronze Age Globalism. Proceedings of an International Conference in Stuttgart and Tübingen in October 2009 [2022-08-12]. ISBN 978-3-447-10350-3. ISSN 2195-4305. （原始內容存檔於2022-03-02）（德語）.
Vasudevan, Aruna. Athens (Attica, Greece): Agora. Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon (編). International Dictionary of Historic Places. 3 (Southern Europe). Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. 1995. ISBN 978-1-884964-02-2.
Veyne, Paul. Palmyra: An Irreplaceable Treasure. 由Fagan, Teresa Lavender翻譯. The University of Chicago Press. 2017 [2015]. ISBN 978-0-226-42782-9.
Waardenburg, Jacques. Changes of Belief in Spiritual Beings, Prophethood, and the Rise of Islam. Kippenberg, Hans Gerhard; Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem; Kuiper, Yme B. (編). Struggles of Gods: Papers of the Groningen Work Group for the Study of the History of Religions. Religion and Reason 31. Walter de Gruyter. 1984. ISBN 978-90-279-3460-4. ISSN 0080-0848.
Waardenburg, Jean Jacques. Islam: Historical, Social, and Political Perspectives. Religion and Reason 40. Walter de Gruyter. 2002: 405–436. ISBN 978-3-11-017178-5. ISSN 0080-0848. doi:10.1515/9783110200942.bm.
Watson, Alaric. Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. 2004 [1999]. ISBN 978-1-134-90815-8.
Watson, William E. Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World. Praeger Publishers. 2003. ISBN 978-0-275-97470-1.
Wheeler, Everett L. The Army and the Limes in the East. Erdkamp, Paul (編). A Companion to the Roman Army. Wiley-Blackwell. 2011. ISBN 978-1-4443-9376-7.
Whittow, Mark. The late Roman/early Byzantine Near East. Robinson, Chase F. (編). The formation of the Islamic World. Sixth to Eleventh Centuries. The New Cambridge History of Islam 1. Cambridge University Press. 2010. ISBN 978-1-316-18430-1.
Williams, Sara Elizabeth. Isil retakes historic city of Palmyra. The Telegraph. 11 December 2016 [13 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於12 January 2022）.
Winter, Stefan. The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788. Cambridge University Press. 2010. ISBN 978-1-139-48681-1.
Winter, Stefan. Alep et l’émirat du désert (çöl beyliği) au XVIIe-XVIIIe siècle. Winter, Stefan; Ade, Mafalda (編). Aleppo and its Hinterland in the Ottoman Period / Alep et sa province à l'époque ottomane. Brill. 2019. ISBN 978-90-04-37902-2.
Withnall, Adam. Isis executes Palmyra antiquities chief and hangs him from ruins he spent a lifetime restoring. The Independent. 19 August 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2016-11-13）.
Wolfensohn, Israel. تاريخ اللغات السامية (History of Semitic Languages). دار القلم للطباعة و النشر و التوزيع. 2016 [1914]. OCLC 929730588 （阿拉伯語）.
Wood, Robert. The ruins of Palmyra, otherwise Tedmor, in the desart. London, Robert Wood. 1753. OCLC 642403707.
Wright, David P. Syria and Canaan. Johnston, Sarah Iles (編). Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. Harvard University Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-674-01517-3.
Yarshater, Ehsan. Hovannisian, Richard G.; Sabagh, Georges , 編. The Persian Presence in the Islamic World. Giorgio Levi della Vida Conference 13. Cambridge University Press. 1998. ISBN 978-0-521-59185-0.
Yon, Jean-Baptiste. Les notables de Palmyre. l'Institut français d'archéologie du Proche-Orient. 2002. ISBN 978-2-912738-19-6 （法語）.
Young, Gary K. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. Routledge. 2003 [2001]. ISBN 978-1-134-54793-7.
Zahran, Yasamin. Zenobia between Reality and Legend. BAR (British Archaeological Reports) International Series 1169. Archaeopress. 2003. ISBN 978-1-84171-537-7. ISSN 0143-3067.
Zuchowska, Marta. Wadi al Qubur and Its Interrelations with the Development of Urban Space of the City of Palmyra in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods. Kühne, Hartmut; Czichon, Rainer Maria; Kreppner, Florian Janoscha (編). Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, 29 March – 3 April 2004, Freie Universität Berlin 1. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 2008. ISBN 978-3-447-05703-5.

外部連結

Metropolitan Museum of Art – Palmyra （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
Palmyra. Italian-Syrian Archaeological Mission of the University of Milan （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）

參見

[1] Syrian army announces recapture of Palmyra from Islamic State. Reuters. 2017-03-02 [2017-03-07]. （原始內容存檔於2019-05-02）.

[2] US-backed Syrian Free Army takes control of Homs' Palmyra district from regime forces. Anadolu Agency. [2024-12-07].

[3] Şafak, Yeni. US-backed Syrian Free Army takes control of Homs' Palmyra district from regime forces | News. Yeni Şafak. [2024-12-07] （美國英語）.

[4] US-backed Syrian Free Army advances in Homs, with reports of clashes with regime forces in Palmyra. www.aa.com.tr. [2024-12-07].

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

閱論編敘利亞世界遺產
文化遺產	20：大馬士革古城（英語：Ancient City of Damascus） · 21：阿勒頗古城 · 22：布斯拉 · 23：巴爾米拉 · 1229：騎士堡和薩拉丁堡 · 1348：敘利亞北部古村落群	21 22 20 1229 23 1348
世界遺產主題首頁 ‧ 世界遺產專題 ‧ 世界遺產 ‧ 阿拉伯國家世界遺產列表 ‧ 維基共享資源

權威控制資料庫
國際	FAST VIAF
各地	法國 BnF data 德國以色列美國捷克希臘
地理	Pleiades