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阿斯圖里亞斯王國 Reino de Asturias （西班牙文） Reinu d'Asturies （阿斯圖里亞斯文） Regnum Asturorum （拉丁文）
718年—924年
国徽
格言：Hoc Signo Tuetur Pius, Hoc Signo Vincitur Inimicus （中文：與此標誌，汝必捍衛虔誠；與此標誌，汝必戰勝敵人。）
首都	坎加斯-德奧尼斯、聖馬汀-德雷奧雷利奧、蘭格雷奧、普拉維亞、奧維耶多
常用语言	拉丁語、通俗拉丁語 （阿斯圖里亞斯-萊昂語、加利西亞-葡萄牙語與卡斯提爾語）、巴斯克語、少數布立吞亞支及哥德語使用者
宗教	基督教
政府	君主制
國王
• 718年-737年	佩拉约
• 910年-925年	弗鲁埃拉二世
历史
• 建立	718年
• 科瓦東加戰役	718年或722年
• 君主世襲	842年
• 分裂	910年
• 终结	924年
前身 继承 西哥特王国 莱昂王国
今属于	西班牙 葡萄牙

阿斯圖里亞斯王國（拉丁語：Regnum Asturorum）是一個位於伊比利半島，由佩拉约國王領導的西哥特貴族於718年建立的王國。也是在伊斯蘭征服西斯班尼亞及西哥德王國滅亡之後，第一個建立的基督教政治實體。722年（一說718年），佩拉约在科瓦東加戰役擊敗奧瑪雅王朝，通常被視為收復失地運動的起點。王國存續到925年，直到弗鲁埃拉二世成為雷昂國王。

歷史

原始的背景

阿斯圖里亞斯王國發源於坎塔布里亞山脈中西部，加利西亞行省的一部分，尤其是歐羅巴之峰（Picos de Europa）及阿斯圖里亞斯的中心地區。王國前幾十年主要的政治發展及軍事事件都發生在這些地區。根據斯特拉波、卡西烏斯·狄奧及其他希臘羅馬地理學家的描述，阿斯圖里亞斯地區在基督教時期開始時已有數個族群定居，其中幾個主要的有：

• 在坎塔布里族群中的瓦迪尼恩塞斯人（Vadinienses），居住在歐羅巴之峰地區，在1世紀期間他們的活動範圍逐漸的向南擴張。
• 歐恆諾梅希人（Orgenomesci），沿著阿斯圖里亞斯的東部海岸居住。
• 來自阿斯圖雷斯族群的薩耶里尼人（Saelini），他們的聚落沿著塞利亞河河谷擴張。
• 盧貢內斯人（Luggones），他們擁有自己的首都盧庫斯-阿斯圖盧姆（Lucus Asturum），並且他們的領域在塞利亞河及納隆河（Nalón）之間擴展。
• 阿斯圖雷斯人（狹義的範圍），位於現今的皮隆尼亞市區與坎加斯-德納爾塞亞之間。
• 帕耶西希人（Paesici），沿著阿斯圖里亞斯的西部海岸居住，在納維亞河口（Navia）及現今的城市希洪之間。

索米耶多的l.lagu del Val.le的圖片。顯示出典型的阿斯圖里亞斯風格房舍，早在阿斯圖雷斯的時期就已經在使用。

古典地理學家對於上述族群的種族描述持有不同的看法：托勒密認為阿斯圖雷斯人從現代阿斯圖里亞斯的中部地區向外擴張，直到納維亞河及塞利亞河之間，他將塞利亞河修正為阿斯圖雷斯與坎塔布里的邊界。然而，其他的地理學者將阿斯圖雷斯與坎塔布里的邊界標示在更東邊的地方：胡立烏斯·毆諾利烏斯在他的著作地理誌（Cosmographia）中提到埃布羅河的湧泉群應該在阿斯圖雷斯的範圍之內。無論如何，坎塔布里亞山脈內的種族界線在後來也沒有那麼的明顯，前羅馬時期北部伊比利社會之間區別分明的氏族部落，在羅馬人到來之後全部被迫進入相似的政治行政體制之下。

這種情勢到了羅馬帝國晚期與中世紀早期開始發生轉變，阿斯圖里亞斯的本體開始逐漸發展出來：西哥德或蘇維匯貴族一個世紀的戰爭使得坎塔布里亞地區的民族身分更加突顯。在拉卡利薩的卡斯特羅（castro of La Carisa，雷納：Lena的市治）的數個考古挖掘遺址，發現用來防止阿斯圖里亞斯中心山谷受到來自梅塞塔高原（Meseta）的入侵者從帕哈雷斯（Pajares）隘口進犯的防線遺跡：這些防禦工事的結構顯示出數個阿斯圖里亞斯聚落之間高度的組織及合作能力，來防禦來自南方的入侵者。碳-14測定的結果發現城牆的建造年份大約在675年到725年這個時期之間，正是兩支遠征軍隊侵略阿斯圖里亞斯的時候：一支是西哥德國王萬巴領導的，另一支則是穆斯林總督穆薩·本·努薩伊爾所領導的，在伊斯蘭征服伊比利亞期間派遣軍隊越過他們的領土。

阿斯圖里亞斯本體的逐漸形成，導致了阿斯圖里亞斯王國在佩拉约的加冕以及他在科瓦東加打敗穆斯林軍隊的勝利之後被創立了。阿爾貝丹西亞編年史（Chronica Albeldensia）描述了科瓦東加戰役的經過，提到「上帝的旨意帶來了阿斯圖里亞斯國王」（Divine providence brings forth the King of Asturias）。

伊斯蘭的佔領與阿斯圖里亞斯的反攻

佩拉約的紀念碑，矗立於科瓦東加。

王國是由西哥德貴族佩拉约（拉丁語：Pelagius）所建立的，在瓜達雷特戰役之後，他回到他的國家，就如同類似德亞例子的哥德傳統一般，他被其他阿斯圖里亞斯的貴族領導者推舉並建立阿斯圖里亞斯王國。然而，佩拉约的王國最初比一支現代的游擊隊組織還要微小。

在伊斯蘭征服伊比利半島的過程中，主要城市及行政中心皆落入穆斯林軍隊的手中。穆斯林控制了中部及南部地區，包含瓜達克伊維爾（Guadalquivir）及埃布羅河谷，新到者發現了些許問題，他們使用基本上源自於羅馬的現存西哥德行政組織。然而，北方山區的城市（例如西西亞Gigia）幾乎都已經不存在了，而投降鄉鎮的接收只能一座山谷接著一座山谷的來進行。穆斯林軍隊時常需要藉由押解人質來確保新佔領地區的和平。

在塔里克（Tarik）的第一次侵略之後，於711年他抵達托雷多（Toledo），葉門出生的伊非利其亞總督穆薩·本·努薩伊爾，幾年後橫越直布羅陀海峽，並展開大規模的征服行動，攻陷了梅里達（Mérida）、托雷多、薩拉哥薩（Zaragoza）及萊里達（Lerida），以及其他城市。在他最後階段的軍事行動期間，他已抵達半島的西北端，並增加對盧戈與希洪地區的控制。在希洪他派遣了一支由姆努薩管理的小分遣隊，他的任務是整合穆斯林的勢力來控制阿斯圖里亞斯。一些阿斯圖里亞斯貴族成為區域歸降的擔保人，而有些人則爭論佩拉約也是其中的一位，雖然他的血源不明，卻仍必須當投降的人質從阿斯圖里亞斯前往哥多華。傳說指出他的妹妹被一個柏柏（Berber）領導人追求，並且試圖建立一個婚姻聯盟。之後，姆努薩嘗試在庇里牛斯山脈的另外一座山做同樣的事，而他卻背叛他的哥多華阿拉伯長官。柏柏人皈依為伊斯蘭教徒僅僅是一個世代前的事，並且視效忠阿拉伯人及敘利亞人為第二順位。

但是，在羅騰西斯史書（Rotensian Chronicle，又稱雷昂的阿方索三世史書，其中佩拉約被認為是西哥德托雷多政權的國王繼承人，而目標便是政治的正統）及阿-馬加里（Al-Maqqari，一位16世紀的摩洛哥歷史學家，去世於埃及開羅，相隔8世紀後他使用這份資料並且重新抄寫一份，使其成為具有爭議性的歷史文件）所提到的，佩拉約在阿·胡爾總督（Al Hurr，717年-718年在職）任期內逃離哥多華，並且回到阿斯圖里亞斯興起叛亂對抗希洪的穆斯林政府。然而佩拉約的身份依然是一個開放的課題，並且這只是其中一種說法。阿斯圖雷斯領導者的血統受到歷史學者的爭論，當時姆努薩派遣由阿-卡馬（Al-Qama）帶領的軍隊前往佩拉約的家鄉布雷斯（Bres，在皮羅尼亞Piloña市內）。在收到穆斯林及抵達的消息後，佩拉約跟他的同伴匆忙的跨越皮羅尼亞河並且朝著易於防守的奧賽瓦（Auseva）山狹谷前進，並且在科瓦東加的一個洞窟內藏身。穆斯林軍隊嘗試圍攻，卻受到天候和在山谷要衝深處暴露位置兩個因素而被迫放棄，為了持續搜尋並摧毀其他叛亂者的反抗行為，穆斯林軍隊聲稱已經從至高點的通道離開前往南方。使得當地人能夠襲擊分散的穆斯林軍隊，而成功殲滅穆斯林。剩下的僅存者持續向南走到萊昂，很可能拋下了阿斯圖里亞斯沿海區域暴露的與守備薄弱的守軍不顧。對於這場戰役最常見的公認說法（基督徒史書描述為史詩，但是穆斯林文件僅稱之為小衝突）為穆斯林的分遣隊在懸崖處受到攻擊，之後撤退透過山谷前往今日的希洪，但是在撤退的途中受到隨軍的攻擊而幾乎全滅。

這場勝利相當的微小，只有少數的柏柏士兵牽涉其中，然而導致佩拉約的威望大幅增加，並且激起阿斯圖里亞斯與加利西亞其他貴族大規模的叛亂，他們立刻重整於佩拉約身邊，推舉他為國王或軍事首領。

在佩拉約的領導下，對柏柏人的攻擊逐漸增加。姆努薩在敵意日益增加的地區感到孤立無援，決定放棄希洪並且通過梅薩隘口（Mesa）前往梅塞塔高原。然而他在奧拉利耶斯（Olalíes，位於現今的格拉多Grado地區）被阿斯圖雷斯人攔截並且殺害。在佩拉約驅逐摩爾人於阿斯圖里亞斯的東部山谷後，他攻擊了伊比利半島西北部的主要城市萊昂並且確保山區通道的安全，防止該地區受到摩爾人的攻擊。佩拉約持續攻擊還留在阿斯圖里亞斯-加利西亞山區的柏柏人直到他們撤退，但更多的是轉移駐軍來進行更大的暴亂面對來自哥多華（Cordoba）控制的阿拉伯人。之後他將他的女兒埃爾梅欣達（Ermesinda）嫁給仍然獨立的西哥德伯國坎塔布里亞的貴族領導者坎塔布里亞的佩德羅（Peter of Cantabria）的兒子阿方索（Alfonso）。佩拉約的兒子法維拉（Favila）則娶弗蘿伊莉烏巴（Froiliuba）為妻。

最近的考古挖掘已經發現可追溯至7世紀末8世紀初位於歐蒙山（Mount Homon）及拉-卡里薩（La Carisa）的數個要塞。這些柏柏要塞包含瞭望塔及接近二公尺深的護城壕，可能有將近數百人參與了要塞的建造及防守。如此多人的參與需要一個高度的組織性及良好的領導能力，或許就是佩拉約他自己。因此，學者認為這些防線的建立可能就是要防止摩爾人再次通過梅薩及帕哈雷斯隘口進入阿斯圖里亞斯。

在佩拉約使摩爾人分崩離析的科瓦東加之戰勝利之後，一個小領域的獨立實體在阿斯圖里亞斯山區成立，這將是阿斯圖里亞斯王國的起源。佩拉約的領導權無法跟西哥德的國王相比。第一個阿斯圖里亞斯國王先是自稱「princeps」（第一公民），之後再稱「rex」（國王），然而第二個頭銜直到阿方索二世的時期才穩定成立。「第一公民」這個頭銜曾經被西班牙北部本土的居民使用，並且通常出現在加利西亞及坎塔布里亞的碑文中，如這些例句：「 尼塞爾，洛斯-阿爾比歐內斯（los Albiones）的第一公民」 （在科阿尼亞Coaña行政區發現的碑文），及「坎塔布里亞第一公民」（ 刻於雷昂之希斯提耶納Cistierna行政區的一塊墓碑之上）。事實上，與西哥德人皆相同反抗羅馬人，並且不願意受到奧瑪雅哈里發支配的坎塔布里亞海岸人民，這些人民集結出的領導權，才是阿斯圖里亞斯王國後來的起源。來自南方、自安達盧斯逃離出來的移民，帶給阿斯圖里亞斯王國哥德式文化的影響力。然而到了9世紀初，阿方索二世將西哥德視為西班牙淪陷的肇因。基於此時期知識的史書，全部成書於尚有龐大哥德意識形態影響的阿方索三世統治時期，有賽巴斯提安內希安史書（Crónica Sebastianense）、阿爾貝登希安史書（Crónica Albeldense）、及羅藤希安史書（Crónica Rotense）。

阿斯圖里亞斯首個十年對王國內不同區域的統治仍然是鬆散的，因此需要不斷透過與伊比利半島北部的其他豪族聯姻來強化統治。所以佩拉約將女兒埃爾梅辛達（Ermesinda）嫁給坎塔布里亞伯爵佩德羅的兒子阿方索。阿方索有兒子弗魯埃拉及女兒阿度辛達（Adosinda），弗魯埃拉娶了一個阿拉瓦（Alava）的巴斯克公主姆妮亞（Munia），而阿度辛達則嫁給一個來自普拉維亞（Pravia）之弗拉維歐納維亞（Flavionavia）地區的地方豪強希羅（Silo）。

737年佩拉約去世後，他的兒子法維拉（或稱「法菲拉」）被推選為國王。根據史書，法維拉在一次當代貴族常見的試膽狩獵行動中，遭到一隻熊意外殺害。但並沒有其他為人所知的意外在該項運動長久的歷史中出現，並且這起事件可疑地與羅馬第一任國王羅慕路斯的傳說相似，因為突如其來的風暴而發生。法維拉身亡的立即後果便是阿斯圖里亞斯的王權轉到他的妹夫，相鄰的獨立實體統治者，與法維拉的妹妹聯姻的阿方索手中。女性的繼承權利及關係在當時仍然受到尊重，並且後來的實例顯示丈夫的攝政權甚至王權是允許的。

佩拉約在阿斯圖里亞斯創立了一個存在超過數十年的王朝，並且逐漸擴張王國的邊界，直到約775年全伊比利半島的北部都屬於王國的領土。阿方索二世791年到842年的統治期間，王國達成更遠的向南擴張，幾乎遠到葡萄牙的里斯本。

814年的阿斯圖里亞斯王國以及歐洲同時期的其他國家。

初期的擴張

法維拉的王位由阿方索一世繼承，他之所以能夠繼承阿斯圖里亞斯的王位要多虧於他與佩拉約的女兒埃爾梅辛達的婚姻。阿爾貝爾登西安史書描述了阿方索如何在科瓦東加戰役後的某一時進入王國娶了埃爾梅辛達的情形。法維拉的去世使得阿方索獲得王位成為可能，同時使他的家族坎塔布里亞家族的勢力上升成為阿斯圖里亞斯王國最強大的家族。最初只有阿方索遷往坎加斯的宮殿，但在梅塞塔高原及埃布羅河中部河谷（坎塔布里亞公國的主要據點如阿馬亞Amaya、特利西歐Tricio及坎塔布里亞市的所在地）的人口持續減少後，佩德羅公爵的後人（即阿方索）從坎塔布里亞地區收回了拉里奧哈，並且最後掌控了阿斯圖里亞斯王國的命運。

阿方索開啟了阿斯圖里亞斯這個從歐羅巴山興起的小型基督教王國的領土擴張，透過連續的侵略杜羅河河谷將勢力向西朝加利西亞以及向南擴張，佔領城市及村落並且將這些城鎮的居民遷往更安全的北方區域。此舉最終導致梅塞塔高原戰略性的人口減少，使得杜羅沙漠的產生，為之後的摩爾人攻擊提供保護抵檔的作用。

這起人口減少事件的真實性，受到西班牙歷史學家克勞迪歐·桑切斯-阿爾波諾斯的擁護，然而在今日是受到質疑的，至少關於它的規模。 有兩個反方的主要爭議點。第一，較小的地名被保存在數個行政區中。第二，在坎塔布里亞地區及梅塞塔高原的居民存在著生物及文化上的差異。真相是在8世紀的上半葉發生了農村的成長而造成城市生活形態的放棄，同時放牧民的小群體人口開始產生組織性。數個因素可以解釋這個過程的發生：羅馬帝國晚期即存在的基於奴隸的生產制度的決定性崩潰；該地區不斷傳播的流行病；以及安達盧斯的柏柏人軍團在面對740年到741年的叛亂後放棄該地區。以上種種因素使得一個人口稀疏、缺少組織的地區得以出現，並且將阿斯圖里亞斯王國與來自摩爾人的攻擊隔離開來，還使得阿斯圖里亞斯王國能夠逐漸的增強。

阿方索一世及弗魯埃拉在杜羅河河谷進行的人口減少事件可能與前羅馬時期阿斯圖雷斯人對同一區域進行的襲擊事件差異不大。阿斯圖里亞斯最初的擴張主要是從坎塔布里亞地區（從加利西亞到比斯開）開始進行的，而一直要到奧多尼奧一世及阿方索三世的統治期間，王國才能有效控制位於坎塔布連山脈南部的領土。

弗魯埃拉一世是阿方索一世的兒子，繼續鞏固並且擴張他父親的領土。他最後遭到與坎塔布里亞家族有關的幾位貴族成員暗殺。

社會及政治的轉變

Written sources are concise concerning the reigns of Aurelio, Silo, Mauregato and Bermudo I. Generally this period, with a duration of twenty-three years (768-791), has been considered as a long stage of obscurity and retreat of the kingdom of Asturias. This vision, defended by some historians, who even named this phase of the history of the Asturian kingdom as that of the "lazy kings," originated because it appears that in that moment there were no important military actions against Al-Andalus. However, during those years there were relevant and decisive internal transformations in the Asturian kingdom. They all prepared and provided a foundation, in all respects, for the strengthening and the expansion of Asturias.

First, the first internal rebellion, led by Mauregato (783-788), occurred during those years. The rebellion removed Alphonse II from the throne (although he became king again later, from 791 to 842), and initiated a series of rebellions whose principal leaders were members of ascending aristocratic palace groups and landowners who, based on the growing economic development of the area, tried to displace from power of the reigning family of Don Pelayo. The important rebellions of Nepociano, Aldroito and Piniolo, during the reign of Ramiro I (842-50), are part of this process of economic, social, political and cultural transformation of the Asturian kingdom that occurred during the eighth and ninth centuries.

Second, neighboring rebellions by Basques and Galicians failed, aborted by Asturian kings. These rebellions, in turn, took advantage of the internal rebellions of the central and Eastern part of Asturias, and, on occasions, provided help to one or another contender of the Asturian aristocracy: refuge to Alphonse II in lands of Alava, after his flight; the support to Nepociano's rebellion in some Asturian areas or the adherence of Galicians to the cause of Ramiro I.

Finally, other evidence suggests important internal transformations of the Asturian kingdom during this time. Rebellions of freedmen (serbi, servilis orico and libertini, according to the Chronicles) occurred during the reign of Aurelio I. The property relationship between master and slave broke down progressively. This fact, together with the growing role of the individual and the restricted family in detriment of the role that until that time had fulfilled the extended family, is another indication that a new society was emerging in Asturias at the end of the eighth and beginning of the ninth centuries.

Fruela I (757-68) is succeeded by Aurelio (768-74), Peter of Cantabria's grandson, who will establish the court in lands of what is today the district of San Martin del Rey Aurelio, which previously belonged to Langreo, between the years of his reign. Silo (774-83) succeeded Aurelio after his death, and transfers the court to Pravia. Silo was married to Adosinda, one of the daughters of Alphonse I (and therefore, Pelayo's granddaughter).

Alphonse II was elected king after Silo's death, but Mauregato organized a strong opposition and forced the new king to withdraw to lands in Alava (his mother, Munia, was Basque), obtaining the Asturian throne. This king, despite the bad reputation attributed by history, had good relations with Beato de Liebana, perhaps the most important cultural figure of the kingdom, and supported him in his fight against adoptionism. Legend says that Mauregato was Alphonse I's bastard son with a Moorish woman, and attributes to him the tribute of a hundred maidens. He was succeeded by Bermudo I, Aurelio's brother. He was called the deacon, although he probably only received minor vows. Bermudo abdicated after a military defeat, ending his life in a monastery.

Recognition

It was not until King Alfonso II of Asturias (791-842) that the kingdom was firmly established with Alfonso's recognition as king of Asturias by Charlemagne and the Pope. He conquered Galicia and the Basques. During his reign, the holy bones of St. James the Great were declared to be found in Galicia, at Santiago de Compostela (from Latin campus stellae, literally "the field of the star"). Pilgrims from all over Europe opened a way of communication between the isolated Asturias and the Carolingian lands and beyond.

The first capital city was Cangas de Onís. Then, in Silo's time, it was moved to Pravia. Alfonso II chose Oviedo as the definite capital of the Kingdom. The kingdom was known as Asturias until 924, when it became the Kingdom of León. It continued under that name until incorporated into the Kingdom of Castile in 1230, after Ferdinand III became joint king of the two kingdoms.

Religion

Remnants of Megalithic and Celtic paganism

Image of the Santa Cruz dolmen, burial place of chieftains of the Eastern Asturian area since Megalithic times.

Although the earliest evidence of Christian worship in Asturias date from the 5th century, evangelisation did not make any substantial progress until the middle of the 6th century, when hermits like Santo Turibius of Liébana and monks of the Saint Fructuoso order gradually settled in the lands of the Cantabrian mountains and began preaching the Christian doctrine to the locals.

Christianisation went slowly in Asturias without supplanting the ancient pagan divinities. As elsewhere in Europe, the new religion coexisted syncretically with features of the ancient beliefs. Still in the 6th Century, bishop San Martín de Braga complained in his work De correctione rusticorum about the attachment of the Galician peasants to the pre-Christian cults: "Many demons, who were expelled from the heavens, settled in the sea, in the rivers, fountains and forests, and have come to be worshipped as gods by ignorant people. To them they do their sacrifices: in the sea they invoke Neptune, in the rivers the Lamias; in the fountains the Nymphs, and in the forests Diana."

The yew tree is still very important in Asturian folklore, where it stands as a link to the afterlife.

In the middle of the Sella valley (where Cangas de Onís is located) there was a dolmen area, which dated back to the megalithic era, and was built probably in the period 4,000 - 2,000 BC. In this place, particularly in Santa Cruz Dolmen, the ritual burials of the surrounding regions' chieftains were performed. Such practices survived the Roman and Visigothic conquests to a point that even in the 8th century king Favila was buried there, in the same place were the corpses of ancient tribal leaders had their final rest. Although the Asturian monarchy fostered the Christianization of this site (ordering the edification of a church), there are still today Pagan traditions linked with the Santa Cruz dolmen: It is said that xanas (Asturian fairies) appear to visitors, and magical properties are ascribed to the soil of the place.

According to a inscription found in the Santa Cruz church, its consacration took place in year 738 and was presided by a vates called Asterio. The word vates is uncommon in Catholic documents and epitaphs, where the word presbyterus (for Christian priests) is preferred. On the other hand, vates was used in Latin to denote a poet with clairvoyance powers and according to the Ancient Greek writers Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Poseidonius, the vates (ουατεις) were also one of three classes of Celtic priesthood, the other two being the druids and the bards. Some historians think that Asterio held a religious office which combined elements of the pagan and Christian religions, while others think he may be linked to the Brythonic refugees that settled in Britonia (Galicia) in the 6th century: The Parrochiale Suevorum (an administrative document of the Suebi Kingdom) tells that the lands of Asturias belonged to the Britonian see, and it is a fact that some features of the Celtic Christianity penetrated in Northern Spain, like the Celtic tonsure which was condemned by the Visigoth bishops who assisted to the Fourth Council of Toledo.

Still today there remain in Galician legends related to monks who travelled by sea to the Paradise Islands, like those of Saint Amaro, Trezenzonio or Ero de Armenteira. These stories have many parallels with that of Saint Brendan the navigator, Saint Maclovius of Wales, and the stories of the Irish immrama.

Christianization was fostered by the Asturian kings, who did not base their power in the indigenous religious traditions (unlike other medieval European kings, like Penda of Mercia or Widukind), but in the texts of the Christian Sacred Scriptures (particularly, the books of Revelation, Ezekiel and Daniel) and the Fathers of the Church, which furnished the new monarchy with its foundational myths.

Adoptionism

The foundations of Asturian culture and that of Christian Spain in the High Middle Ages were laid during the reigns of Silo and Mauregato, when the Asturian kings submitted to the authority of the Umayyad emirs of the Caliphate of Córdoba. The most prominent Christian scholar in the Kingdom of Asturias of this period was Beatus of Liébana, whose works left an indelible mark in the Christian culture of the Reconquista.

Beatus map.

Beatus was directly involved in the debate surrounding adoptionism, which argued that Jesus was born a man, and was adopted by God and acquired a divine dimension only after his passion and resurrection. Beatus refuted this theological position, championed by such figures as Elipandus, bishop of Toledo.

The adoptionist theology had its roots in Gothic Arianism, which denied the divinity of Jesus, and in Greco-Roman paganism, with examples of heroes like Herakles who, after their death attained the apotheosis. Likewise, as Elipandus's bishopric of Toledo was at the time within the Muslim Caliphate of Cordoba, Islamic beliefs which acknowledged Jesus as a Prophet, but not as the Son of God, influenced the formation of adoptionism. However, the adoptionist theology opposed strongly by Beatus from his abbey in Santo Toribio de Liébana. At the same time, Beatus strengthened the links between Asturias, Rome, and the Carolingian Empire, and was supported in his theological struggle by the Pope and by his friend Alcuin of York, an Anglo-Saxon scholar who had settled among the Carolingian court in Aachen.

Millennialism

The Angel of the Fifth Trumpet, an example of a beati manuscript.

The most transcendental works of Beatus were his Commentaries to Apocalypse, which were copied in later centuries in manuscripts called beati, about which the Italian writer Umberto Eco said: "Their splendid images gave birth to the most relevant iconographic happening in the History of Mankind". Beatus develops in them a personal interpretation of the book of Revelation, accompanied by quotes from the Old Testament, the Church Fathers and fascinating illustrations.

In these Commentaries a new interpretation of the apocalyptic accounts is given: Babylon no longer represents the city of Rome, but Córdoba, seat of the Ummayad emirs of Al-Andalus; the Beast, once a symbol of the Roman Empire, now stands for the Islamic invaders who in this time threatened to destroy Western Christianity and who made raids on the territories of the Asturian Kingdom.

In the prologue to the second book of the Commentaries is found one of the best examples of a Mappae Mundi of the high medieval culture. The aim of this map was not to represent the world cartographically, but to serve as an illustration of the Apostles Diaspora in the first decades of Christianity. Beatus took data from the works of Saint Isidore of Seville, Ptolemy and the Holy Scripture. The world was represented as a land disc surrounded by the Ocean and divided in three parts: Asia (upper semicircle), Europe (lower left quadrant) and Africa (lower right quadrant). The Mediterranean Sea (Europe-Africa), the Nile River (Africa-Asia) and the Aegean Sea and the Bosphorus (Europa-Asia) were set as boundaries between the different continental masses.

For Beatus, the Whore of Babylon (Revelation, 17.4-5) (a Christian allegory of evil) was incarnated by the Emirate of Cordoba

. Beatus was persuaded that the Apocalypse described in the book of Revelation was imminent, which would be followed by 1,290 years of domination by the Antichrist. Beatus followed the views of Saint Augustine whose work, The City of God, influenced the Commentaries which followed the premise that the History of the World was structured in six ages: the first five ones extended between the creation of Adam, and the Passion of Jesus, while the sixth, subsequent to Christ and contemporary to us, had to end with the unleashing of the happenings prophesied by the book of Revelation.

Millennialist movements were very common in Europe at that time: between 760 and 780 a series of cosmic phenomena caused panic among the population of Gaul; John, a visionary monk, predicted the coming of the Last Judgement during the reign of Charlemagne. In this time appeared the Apocalypse of Daniel, a Syriac text redacted during the rule of the empress Irene of Byzantium wherein wars between the Arabs, the Byzantines and the Northern peoples were prophesied. These wars would end with the coming of the Antichrist.

Events taking place in Hispania (Islamic rule, the adoptionist heresy, the gradual assimilation of the Mozarabic people...) were, for Beatus, signals of the imminent apocalyptic aeon. As Elipandus describes in his Letter from the bishops of Spania to their brothers in Gaul, the abbot of Santo Toribio went so far as to announce to his countrymen the coming of the End of Time in the Easter of the year 800. On the dawn of that day, hundreds of peasants met around the abbey of Santo Toribio, waiting terrified for the fulfilling of the prophecy. They remained in that place, without having had a bite to eat, during a day and half, until one of them, named Ordonius, exclaimed: "Let us eat and drink, so that if the End of the World comes we are full!".

The prophetic and millennialist visions of Beatus produced an enduring mark in the development of the Kingdom of Asturias: the Chronica Prophetica, which was composed circa 880 AD, predicted the final fall of the Emirate of Córdoba, and the conquest and redemption of the entire Iberian peninsula by king Alfonso III. Millennialist imagery is also reflected throughout the kingdom in the Cruz de la Victoria icon - the major emblem of the Asturian kingdom - has its origins in a passage of the Revelation book in which Saint John relates the following vision of the Parusia: He sees Jesus Christ seated in his Majesty, surrounded by clouds and affirming: "I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty". It is true that usage of the labarum was not restricted to Asturias, and, moreover, dates back to the time of Constantine the Great (who used this symbol during the battle of Battle of the Milvian Bridge). But it was in Asturias where the Cruz de la Victoria attained a general use: In nearly every Pre-romanesque church this icon is engraved, often accompanied with the expression "Hoc signo tuetur pius, in hoc signo vincitur inimicus", that became the royal motto of the Asturian monarchs.

El Camino de Santiago

Another of the major spiritual legacies of the Asturian Kingdom is the creation of one of the most important ways of cultural transmission in European history: The Way of St. James. The first text which mentions St. James' preaching in Spain is the Breviarius de Hyerosolima, a 6th-century document which stated that the Apostle was buried in an enigmatical place called Aca Marmarica. Saint Isidore of Seville supported this theory in his work De ortu et obitu patrium. One hundred fifty years later, in times of Mauregato, the hymn O Dei Verbum rendered St. James as "the golden head of Spain, our protector and national patron" and a mention is made of his preaching in the Iberian Peninsula during the first decades of Christianity. Some attribute this hymn to Beatus, although this is still discussed by historians.

The legend of St. James gained support during the reign of Alfonso II when the Galician herit Pelayo claimed to observe mysterious brightness during several nights over the wood of Libredón, in Iria Flavia diocese. Angelic songs accompanied the lights. Impressed by this phenomenon, Pelayo appeared before the bishop of Iria Flavia, Teodomirus, who – after having heard the hermit – visited the location with his retinue. In the depths of the forest was found a stone sepulcre with three corpses, which were identified with those of St. James, son of Zebedee, and his two disciples, Theodorus and Atanasius. According to the legend, king Alfonso was the first pilgrim who had come to see the Apostle: During the travel he was guided at night by the Milky Way, which from then on acquired in Spanish the name Camino de Santiago.

The founding of St. James tomb was a formidable political success for the Kingdom of Asturias: Now Asturias could claim the honour of having a corpse of one of the apostles of Jesus, a privilege shared only with Asia (Ephesus) where Saint John was buried, and Rome, where the corpses of Saint Peter and Saint Paul rested. From this moment on, Santiago de Compostela became one of the three sacred cities of Christianity, together with Rome and Jerusalem. In later centuries, many Central European cultural influences travelled to Iberia through the Way of St. James, from the Gothic and Romanesque styles, to the Occitan lyric poetry.

However, the story of the "discovery" of the remains of the Apostle shows some enigmatic features. The tomb was found in a place used as a necropolis since the Late Roman Empire, so it is possible that the corpse belonged to a prominent person of the area: British historian Henry Chadwick hypothesized the tomb of Compostela actually hold the remains of Priscillian. Other scholars, like Constantino Cabal, highlighted the fact that several Galician places, such as Pico Sacro, Pedra da Barca (Muxía) or San Andrés de Teixido, were already in Pre-Roman times draws for Pagan pilgrimage. Pagan beliefs held these places as the End of the World, and as entrances to the Celtic Otherworld. After the discovery of Saint James' tomb, the gradual Christianization of those routes of pilgrimage began.

Mythology

Since the Chronicles of the Asturian kingdom were written a century and a half after the battle of Covadonga, there are many aspects of the first Asturian kings that remain shrouded in myth and legend.

Although the historicity of Pelayo is beyond doubt, the historical narrative describing him includes many folktales and legends. One of them asserts that prior to the Muslim invasion, Pelayo went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the sacred city of Christianity. However, there is no extant evidence of this.

Ercina lake. According to the legend, under its waters a village -or perhaps a city- is hidden.

Likewise, it is also said that the Cruz de la Victoria was at first carved in an oak's log by a lightning strike. The core of this story contains two elements of major importance in the Asturian folklore: On one hand, lightning was the ancient symbol of the Astur (and Celtic) god Taranis, and in Asturian mythology was thought to be forged by the Nuberu, lord of clouds, rain and wind. On the other hand, the oak tree is the symbol of the Asturian royalty and in reliefs of the Abamia Church (where Pelayo was buried) leaves of that tree are shown.

In one of the caves in Kyffhäuser mountain, lives Frederick Barbarossa surrounded by his cavaliers, somewhat similar to those of Fruela and Bernardo del Carpio. The Covadonga area is also rich with astonishing stories, such as the one which is said to have happened in a shepherd village where today Enol and Ercina lakes are situated. The Virgin Mary, disguised as a pilgrim, is said to have visited that village and asked for food and shelter from every house of that village. She was rudely rejected by every person, except for a shepherd who gave her refuge and warmly shared everything he had. On the following day, as punishment for their lack of hospitality, a flood of divine origin devastated the village, which completely covered everything except the cottage of the good shepherd. In front of him, the mysterious guest started to cry, and her tears became flowers when they reached the floor. Then the shepherd realized that the pilgrim was actually the Virgin Mary.

This is a Pan-celtic myth which is also found in other countries of the Atlantic Arch. In Galicia it is said that in the bottom of the Antela lake there are remnants of the ancient population of Antiochia, which vanished off the face of earth by a night deluge, in punishment for the sins of its inhabitants. On the other coast of the Biscay Bay, in Brittany, there are traditions related with the city of Ker-Ys, situated in the Douarnenez gulf, in lands claimed from the sea and protected by a dam. The daughter of the king, Dahud, gave the keys of the city to Satan, who had disguised himself as a beautiful prince: This resulted in the flooding of Ys by the waters of the Ocean.

Illustration of Hezekiah's Canticle belonging to the book Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. The Asturian monarchs often took the Jewish kings of the Old Testament as their models.

There are also myths about the Asturian Monarchy that are rooted in Jewish and Christian traditions rather than Pagan ones: the Chronica ad Sebastianum tells of an extraordinary event that happened when king Alfonso I died. While the noblemen were holding a wake for him, there could be heard celestial canticles sung by angels. They recited the following text of the Book of Isaiah (which happens to be the same that was read by the Mozarabic priests during the Vigil of the Holy Saturday):

I said in the cutting off of my days, I shall go to the gates of the grave: I am deprived of the residue of my years.
I said, I shall not see the LORD, even the LORD, in the land of the living: I shall behold man no more with the inhabitants of the world.
Mine age is departed, and is removed from me as a shepherd's tent: I have cut off like a weaver my life: he will cut me off with pining sickness: from day even to night wilt thou make an end of me.
I reckoned till morning, that, as a lion, so will he break all my bones: from day even to night wilt thou make an end of me.
Like a crane or a swallow, so did I chatter: I did mourn as a dove: mine eyes fail with looking upward: O LORD, I am oppressed; undertake for me.

This canticle was recited by Hezekiah, king of Judah, after his recovery from a serious illness. In these verses, the King regretted with distress his departure to sheol, the Jewish Underworld, a shady place where he would not see God nor men any more.

Asturias also has examples of the Sleeping Hero myth. According to the tradition, it is still today possible to see king Fruela walking around the Jardín de los Reyes Caudillos (a part of the Oviedo Cathedral), and it is said that his grandson, the famous cavalier Bernardo del Carpio, sleeps in a cave in the Asturian mountains. The story tells that one day a peasant went into a certain cave to retrieve his lost cow, and heard a strong voice who declared to be Bernardo del Carpio, winner over the Franks in Roncevaux. After saying he had lived alone for centuries in that cave, he told the peasant: "Give me your hand, so that I can see how strong are men today". The shepherd, scared, gave him the horn of the cow, which, when seized by the giant man, was immediately broken. The poor villager ran away terrified, but not without hearing Bernardo say: "Current men are not like those who helped me to kill Frenchmen in Roncevaux".

There are evident parallels between these stories and those which surround another medieval characters like Barbarossa or King Arthur. It is said that Barbarossa did not die, but retired to a cave in the Kyffhäuser mountain, and that one day, when the ravens no long fly around the mountain, he will awake and restore Germany to its ancient greatness. King Arthur, according to many traditions, lives in many hills and caves of the island of Great Britain. His most famous dwelling is the Eildon Hill in Scotland, where he took refuge after the battle of Camlann.

Legacy

The Kingdom of Asturias was, in its infancy, an indigenous reaction of Astures and Cantabri peoples to a foreign invasion. These people had fought the Romans in the Astur-Cantabrian Wars, and initially resisted Romanisation. Although they preserved many characteristics of their pre-Roman culture, their Celtic languages were later lost in favor of Latin.

Church of Santa María del Naranco. Eastern façade. This is probably the finest example of Asturian architecture.

This kingdom is the birthplace of an influential European medieval architectural style: Asturian Preromanesque. This style of architecture was founded during the reign of Ramiro I.

This small kingdom was a milestone in the fight against Adoptionist heresy, with Beatus of Liébana as a major figure. In the time of Alfonso II, the shrine of Santiago was "found." The pilgrimage to Santiago, Camino de Santiago, was a major nexus within Europe, and many pilgrims (and their money) passed through Asturias on their way to Santiago de Compostela.

See also

List of Asturian monarchs Asturian art Reconquista History of Spain History of Portugal Timeline of the Muslim occupation of the Iberian Peninsula Timeline of Portuguese history Al' Garb Al'Andalus and the beginning of the Reconquista (8th to 9th century) First County of Portugal (9th to 11th Century) Autonomous community of Asturias.

References

• Glick, Thomas, Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages, Leiden: Brill, 2005, ISBN 9004147713 

External links

• Information and virtual reconstructions of early monuments of Oviedo